Jung Han. Innovations in Food Packaging

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Censory quality of foods associated with edible film and coating systems and shelf-life extension

helpful. Carpenter et al. (2000) is a good source for both quality control and product

development sensory guidelines.

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Committee El8 has a

long history of standardizing sensory methodology and providing manuals on special

topics written by industry members and academics.

example is STP 433, Basic

Principles of Sensory Evaluation, written in 1968. STP 545, Senso~y Evaluation of

Appearance of Materials, was published in 1973, and provides good discussions of

the relationship between sensory and instrumental measures of color and appearance.

Chambers and Wolf (1996) revised the original ASTM methods manual, STP 434,

resulting in Sensory Testing Methods, 2nd edition,

MNL

26. As the final judgement of

any new process or product is by the consumer, the ASTM published two volumes on

consumer testing edited by Wu (1989) and Wu and Gelinas (1992).

Whether in research, product development or quality control, understanding a

product's sensory characteristics is paramount. With the application of edible films or

coatings to a product, it is important first to understand the initial product. The goal of

descriptive analysis, using a trained panel, is to describe fully the appearance, aroma,

taste, texture, and aftertaste or residual mouthfeel of a product in sensory terms. With

some descriptive methods the lexicon of terms is taught to the panel, as is the case with

the Spectrum Method developed by Gail Vance Civille (Meilgaard et al., 1999). QDA,

developed by Herb Stone and Joel Sidel at Tragon, has the panel develop the lexicon

during training (Stone and Sidel, 1993). Both techniques provide valuable information.

The Spectrum Method results in terms more directly useful to research and product

development, while QDA results in terms more closely related to the consumer. The

results of a typical descriptive study are described later in this chapter, with examples

using carrots (Mei et al., 2002) and strawberries (Han et al., 2005).

Understanding a product's sensory characteristics and how they change with the

application of edible films or coatings is the first step in determining the product's

quality. The consumer must be consulted to determine if the treatment efficacy satis-

fies the project goals. The success of consumer testing is determined by selecting the

appropriate consumers (users of the product), by testing enough consumers to get the

desired power from the test (Lawless and Heymann, 1998), by using methodology

sensitive to the need, and by presenting representative samples. A general rule of thumb

is to test at least 100 consumers, but in some cases many more

than

this are required.

recent years Preference Mapping has become very popular both to study the effect of

individual consumers and to give a multidimensional representation of products. Macfie

and Thomson (1988) provide a good introduction to this topic.

Statistical analysis of test results, appropriate for the design used, is usually con-

ducted once the data have been collected. While sensory methods remain basically the

same, their statistical analysis options have expanded greatly over the past few years.

07Mahony (1986) provides an introduction to the basic statistical techniques used in

sensory evaluation. Many sensory data sets are multivariate in nature, and require

selection of an appropriate multivariate technique whose statistical assumptions fit

with the goals of the research (Lawless and Heymann, 1998). Lawless and Heymann

(1998) provide a good overview of multivariate statistical techniques.

446

Innovations in Food

Packaging

Edible films and coatings incorporating

functional ingredients

A unique feature of edible films and coatings is their capacity to carry many func-

tional ingredients, including antimicrobial agents, antioxidants, flavorings, and colorants.

Integration of these minor ingredients can enhance food stability, quality, functional-

ity, and safety. For example, the antimicrobial agents nisin (Janes

al., 1999), and

p-aminobenzoic and sorbic acids (Cagri

al., 1999), were added directly to edible

coatings to suppress surface microbial growth in cooked chicken and model food sys-

tems; and antioxidants, such as tocopherol (Wu

al., 1999) and butylated hydroxy-

toluene (BHT) (Huang and Weng, 1998), were integrated into edible coatings to inhibit

lipid oxidation in precooked beef patties and fish muscle, respectively.

Edible coatings could also serve as excellent carriers of nutraceutical ingredients.

There has been an explosion of consumer interest in the health-enhancing role of spe-

cific foods or physiologically active food components

so-called nutraceuticals or

functional foods (Hasler, 1998). Edible coating could provide an excellent vehicle to

enhance the nutritional value of fruits and vegetables by carrying nutrients or nutraceu-

ticals that are lacking or present in low quantities. This is a natural extension of their

primary function as moisture and gas barriers.

Efforts to integrate high concentrations of minerals and vitamins into edible films

and coatings have been made in the authors' laboratory. Mei

al. (2002) developed

xanthan

gum

coatings containing a high concentration of calcium and vitamin

and

applied such coatings to fresh baby carrots. Applying such coatings, per serving of

carrots (85 g), provides -6.7% DRI (Dietary Reference Index) calcium and -70%

DRI vitamin

respectively, without degrading the primary barrier function of coat-

ings. Mei and Zhao (2003) also examined the functionality of calcium casienate- (CC)

and WPI-based films containing 5% or 10% Gluconal ~al@ (GC), a mixture of calcium

lactate and gluconate, or 0.1% or 0.2% a-tocopheryl acetate (VE), respectively, and

reported that CC and WPI films have the capabilities to carry a high concentration of

calcium or vitamin E, although some of the film functionality may be compromised.

CC and WPI films containing

exhibited increased elongation at break; addition of

0.2%

decreased

WVP

of CC films and the tensile strength of both CC and WPI

films. Incorporation of GC reduced the tensile strength of CC films

0.05), with

10% GC decreasing both elongation at break and

WVP

0.05).

Park and Zhao (2003) further developed chitosan-based films containing high con-

centrations of calcium, zinc or vitamin E, and studied their functionality. GC incor-

poration significantly increased the pH and decreased the viscosity of film-forming

solutions, but the addition of ZL or VE did not. The water-barrier property of the films

was improved by increasing the concentration of mineral or vitamin E in the film

matrix. However, the tension strength of the films may be reduced by incorporation of

high concentrations of GC or

VE,

although film elongation, puncture strength, and

puncture deformation are not impacted. The study demonstrated the capability of a

chitosan-based film matrix to carry high concentrations of mineral or vitamin E.

Sensory quality offoods associated with edible film and coating systems and shelf-life extension

447

Han

al.

(2004) then demonstrated the application of these coatings on fresh and

frozen strawberries. Adding high concentrations of calcium or vitamin

to chitosan-

based coatings did not alter their antifungal and moisture-barrier functions. The coat-

ings significantly decreased the decay incidence and weight loss, and delayed the

change in color, pH, and titratable acidity of strawberries and red raspberries during

cold storage (Table 24.4). Coatings also reduced the drip loss and helped maintain the

texture quality of frozen strawberries after thawing. In addition, chitosan-based coat-

ings containing calcium or vitamin E significantly increased the content of these

nutrients

both fresh and frozen fruits. A weight of 100 g of coated fruits contained

about 34-59 mg of calcium or 1.7-7.7 mg of vitamin E, depending on the types of

fruits and the time of storage, while uncoated fruits only contain 19-21 mg of calcium

or 0.25-1.15 mg of vitamin E.

In addition to incorporating antimicrobial agents, antioxidants, and nutraceuticals,

flavor and coloring agents may also be added to an edible filmlcoating matrix to

improve or enhance the sensory quality of wrapped or coated products. Unfortunately,

little study has been reported regarding this area.

Table

24.4

Trained panel mean ratings of descriptors showing changes of chitosan-coated

strawbemes during storage at

2'C

and

89%

rawberry

FSESH

,UW

AElW

rexture

Crispness

(NS-) 6.3a

~5~

6.Za 6.F 7.- 6.4"

-1rmness

6.6abc 6.3abc 5.7ab 6.gak 7.7C 5.6a 6.Za 7.4&

UICI~CSS 6.7ab 6.7ab 7.sb 5.ga 6.0a 8.0~ 6.3a-&$2 6.4a

7awr/bas,c

taste

-xq

3verall strawberry

8.0C 7.gC 7.4bC 6.gabc 5.7a 7.gC 8.0c:ttg

t&;iq8

6.3ab

+esh strawberry

7.3C

7.zk

6.0bC 4.0a 5Sab 6AbC 4.za@;$ 6.3bc

Sour

(NS) 5.4a 5.ga 4.8a 5.4= 5.Sa 4.ga

Sweet

(NS) 5.0a 5.3' 5.4a 4.4' 5.1' 4.ga

4stringency

(NS) 3.6" 3.4a 3.78 3.3a 3.1a 3.5'

jource: adapted from Han

eta/.

(2005).

Means of nin_e trained panelists by use of free-cho~ce profile

nethod.

'FRESH,

fresh, uncoated samples;

CON'I

fresh, uncoated samples stored for

week;

LA,

lactic acid

dissolved ch~tosan coating solution;

ME,

lactic acid dissolved chitosan coating solution containing

3.2%

vitamin

IW, 2W, 3W,

Samples stored for

1,2,

weeks.

'-f

~ifferent letter superscripts indicate significant differences at

0.05

for each row separated I

rukey's

HSD.

=ifteen-point structured intensity scalrc

none

mnderars,

and

e~rpme)

:NS-.

nit significant at

<O.OOI).

448 Innovations in Food Packaging

Future research

Edible films and coatings, due to their unique features, provide a promising technology

to food companies for enhancing the quality and extending the shelf life of their prod-

ucts. However, commercial applications on fresh and minimally processed fruits and

vegetables are still very limited.

Part

of the reason is the lack of film and coating mate-

rials that have desirable functionality. More efforts are required to develop new materials

and understand their functionality and interactions among the components used in the

edible films and coatings. Meanwhile, studies to improve the functionality of existing

materials are important. This may be done by adjusting the formulation of film-forming

solutions, incorporating functional ingredients, and modifpng film-forming conditions.

In addition, it is important to conduct more sensory studies to understand consumer

acceptance of edible films and coatings, as this information would help to determine

quality criteria for the measurement of shelf life and quality of wrapped or coated

foods. These research needs are further illustrated in the following sections.

Development of new materials

Shellac (wax), milk proteins, and polysaccharides are the most common coating mate-

rials used and studied for fresh produce. Each of these materials has its advantages

and disadvantages. When applying coating on fresh-cut produce, one major challenge

is the wet surface. If the coating material is highly hydrophilic, such as milk proteins

or polysaccharides, it would be difficult to

dry and to form a uniform layer on the sur-

face. Hence novel materials that are invisible, less water-soluble, and that have certain

moisture- and gas-barrier properties are essential.

Fruit puree-based films and coatings have been patented with claims of desirable

color, nutrients, and barrier properties (McHugh and Senesi, 2000). Composite films

and coatings made of two or more materials may also meet some of the desired func-

tionality that a single material cannot achieve. Efforts have been made to combine

lipids and polysaccharides, or lipids and

milk

proteins, to complement each other. More

efforts in developing composite materials should continue, and new ideas for using other

agricultural by-products are imperative. In addition, the functionality of edible films

and coatings may be improved by simply redesigning their formulation and modifying

processing procedures/conditions. More attempts should be made to understand fully

the chemical structure and interactions of each component in filmtcoating matrices.

Incorporating functional ingredients

The use of edible films and coatings as carriers of functional ingredients is a natural

extension of their barrier properties. By taking advantage of the carrying/incorporating

feature of edible films and coatings, functional ingredients such as antimicrobial agents,

antioxidants, flavor, and coloring agents may be added to filrn/coating formulations to

further extend the shelf life and enhance the sensory quality of wrapped or coated food.

Exposure in this area is still very limited, and more attempts should be made. One

Sensory quality of foods associated with edible film and coating systems and shelf-life extension

449

critical issue is the possibility of altering the basic functional properties of edible films

and coatings, such as their resistance to vapor, gas, or solute transport, when incorporat-

ing other functional ingredients. The influence of a given ingredient on coating func-

tionality depends on its concentration in the coating, its chemical structure, its degree

of dispersion in the coating, and the extent of its interaction with the polymer (Kester

and Fennema, 1986). For example, the solubility and stability of added ingredients and

their impact on functional properties have to be investigated and characterized because

these ingredients may induce static cross-linking and affect the film structure and inter-

actions, and in

turn

change the barrier properties of the films and coatings. More research

on novel ingredients and their impacts on film functionality should be conducted.

Sensory studies for determining quality criteria in the

measurement of shelf life

When applying coatings on food, quality criteria must be determined carefully. Color

change, firmness loss, ethanol fermentation, decay ratio, and weight loss are among

the most important quality attributors. Sensory studies conducted by both trained pan-

els and consumer panels are essential. The information would help in the development

of edible films and coatings that will meet market and consumer needs.

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Commercial uses of

active food packaging

and modified

atmosphere packaging

systems

Aaron

Brody

Introduction

.......................

Active packaging

.......................

Modified atmosphere packaging

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