James Cadle Business Analysis Techniques: 72 Essential Tools for Success
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additional dimensions of culture in his study, which was based on understanding
aspects of national influence:
Power This is the degree to which the less powerful members of
distance: society expect there to be differences in the levels of power.
A high score suggests an expectation that some individuals
wield larger amounts of power than others, and that everyone
accepts that this is the situation.
Individualism This refers to the extent to which people are expected to stand
versus up for themselves, or alternatively to act predominantly as
collectivism: members of the group or organisation.
Masculinity This refers to the value placed on traditionally male or female
versus values. Masculine cultures value competitiveness, assertiveness,
femininity: ambition and the accumulation of wealth and material
possessions, whereas feminine cultures place more value on
relationships and quality of life.
Uncertainty This considers the extent to which a society attempts to cope
avoidance: with anxiety by minimising uncertainty. Cultures that score
highly in uncertainty avoidance prefer rules (for example,
about religion and food) and structured circumstances, and
employees in this kind of society tend to remain longer with
their employers.
Long- versus This describes a society’s ‘time horizon’, or the importance
short-term attached to the future compared with the past and present.
orientation: In long-term oriented societies, thrift and perseverance are
valued more; in short-term oriented societies, respect for
tradition and reciprocation of gifts and favours are valued
more.
Hofstede added the fifth dimension after conducting an additional international
study using a survey instrument developed with Chinese employees and
managers. This survey resulted in the addition of Confucian dynamism.
Subsequently Hofstede described this dimension as a culture’s long-term
orientation.
Much of this work was consolidated and extended by Johnson and Scholes (1999)
when they defined what has become known as the ‘cultural web’, which provides
a useful summary of characteristics for BAs to use when considering the cultural
aspects of the organisation they are working with. The ideas demonstrated by the
cultural web are particularly useful when aligning an organisation’s culture with
its strategy in order to provide support in the planning of business change.
The cultural web identifies seven interrelated elements that, together, constitute
an organisation’s culture. These seven overlapping elements are illustrated
in Figure 7.1. In the description that follows, we use examples based on Virgin
Atlantic Airlines.
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The elements of the cultural web are:
Paradigm: At the heart of the culture of any organisation are some
assumptions about why it exists and what it is for. Ideally this
paradigm would be reflected in its mission statement. In the
case of Virgin Atlantic, in July 2009 this was ‘to grow a
profitable airline where people love to fly and where people
love to work’.
Stories: These are past events and personalities that are talked about
both inside and outside the organisation. Most stories
regarding Virgin Atlantic, both internal and external, involve
its founder, Sir Richard Branson, in some way. These usually
relate to displays of his personality and management style
and place him in the role of an anti-corporate and innovative
hero. As a result, customers feel they are dealing with a
small, friendly business rather than a large international
organisation.
Rituals and These are the daily actions of individuals that are seen as
values: acceptable behaviour within the organisation and are valued
MANAGE CHANGE
Organisational
Structures
The
Paradigm
Stories
Rituals and
Routines
Control
Systems
Power
Structures
Symbols
Figure 7.1 Johnson and Scholes’s cultural web
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by management. Virgin Atlantic’s offices are generally spacious,
with many relaxed break-out areas creating a pleasant work
environment, an impression that is felt also by visitors to the
organisation. When staff have completed a major training
programme they and their families are invited to an award
event, which Sir Richard Branson himself likes to attend.
Symbols: These are visual representations of the organisation, including
such matters as logos, the lushness of offices and policy on
dress code. In addition to the obvious branding of a Virgin
company, the dress code for staff is very informal, and the
offices are very smart with slick procedures, indicating an
attention to detail.
Organisational These reflect the ways the organisation is managed and
structures: controlled, and the informal lines of power and influence.
Virgin Atlantic’s structure involves small, focused teams that
still maintain a global perspective. This, again, creates a
small company mentality within a large company.
Control These are the ways in which the organisation is controlled,
systems: including governance, financial systems and performance
rewards. In Virgin Atlantic, targets such as customer
satisfaction and flight punctuality are not just measured;
their ongoing results are displayed on large screens in the
main office reception area for all to see.
Power This reflects where the pockets of real power in the organisation
structure: lie, with particular respect to decisions, operations and strategic
direction. While Virgin Atlantic’s staff are encouraged to be
empowered and innovative, real control and vision is driven
from a small and closely knit group of senior executives.
The example here has used the cultural web to identify and analyse some aspects
of an important company within the Virgin Group. It reveals a specific set of
values and beliefs, and how these affect the way of working. While this particular
culture creates many advantages for the organisation, it can also easily be seen
that bringing a new company into the group would potentially involve major
culture clashes, and that any such integration would need to focus carefully on
resolving these in order to ensure success.
Using cultural analysis
By examining these individual elements and their interrelationships the BA can
explore the gap in terms of cultural change between where the organisation is
now (by studying the culture as it is) and where it needs to be (by considering it
as they would like it to be), and hence support any proposed changes to processes
and systems. The holistic nature of the BA’s role is therefore enhanced by the
application of the ideas gained from the cultural web and similar concepts. By
taking time to understand these various elements the BA can avoid a situation in
which aspects of the existing culture are likely to restrict progress, which would,
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if not addressed, potentially lead to such impacts as low morale, absenteeism and
high employee turnover.
If we think about the seven elements of the cultural web, it can be seen that
even a relatively limited (in scope) business analysis project will have an impact
on at least some of them. If, for example, the BA recommends changes to the
organisational structures (by merging swimlanes to improve processes), effective
negotiation of the power structures will be needed in order to get ideas accepted;
and the changes to the business processes may well affect the control systems.
In gaining acceptance for their ideas, Handy’s and Hofstede’s insights into culture
can provide valuable insights to BAs. In Handy’s power culture, for instance, the
key is to get senior sponsorship and drive behind a proposal; in a role culture, a
lot of appeal to committees can be expected; and in a person culture, a thorough
understanding of all the stakeholders is needed since each of them may have to
be brought ‘onside’ individually. In Hofstede’s world, a diagnosis that the culture
is one of high uncertainty avoidance suggests that there will be very little
appetite for decisions based on intangibles, and more concrete benefits will have
to be found.
Technique 67: Kurt Lewin’s model of organisational change
Description of the technique
As far back as 1947, Kurt Lewin proposed a simple model to demonstrate a
process for ensuring successful change in support of his force field analysis
technique. While many consider this model over simplistic, and too mechanistic
to be of use in our modern world, it is in fact its simplicity and clarity that makes
it such a powerful tool for BAs wishing to make change happen and to address
the emotions of change.
The essence of the technique is that if change is to be successfully implemented,
then the process of enabling this must pass through three distinct stages; these
stages should always happen, and always in the sequence defined. Planning the
duration and content of each of these stages is therefore of key importance if all
the hard work undertaken by the BA is to result in the delivery of the planned
benefits. The three stages of the change process (Lewin 1947) are illustrated in
Figure 7.2, and are:
unfreeze – changing the balance of forces;
transition (make the change) – ‘moving’ the organisation as a result of this
balance of more powerful forces;
freeze (often misquoted as refreeze) – creating a new balance.
The unfreeze stage involves focusing on overcoming inertia (one of the key
negative forces for change identified in force field analysis) and dismantling the
current mindset.
The transition stage is where the change itself actually takes place. It often
involves confusion and uncertainty, as, during this period, the old ways of
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working are being challenged while the new ways, which have yet to form a clear
picture, are still finding their way in.
The freeze stage takes place as the new ways set in and comfort levels begin to
return to normal. It is only on the successful completion of this stage that the
change can actually be said to have happened.
Using Lewin’s change model
It is easy when implementing new systems, processes and organisational
structures to focus on the mechanics of getting these delivered on time and on
budget, while ignoring, or simply overlooking, the softer, more behavioural
aspects of change. By keeping Lewin’s three-stage model in mind, and being
aware at all times of where we are in the overall process, the BA can really offer
significant benefits. It is not sufficient simply to communicate to people what the
future will look like, since this is seldom enough to move them from their current
comfort zone. Often significant effort will be required to unfreeze their attitudes
and get them into a position ready to move forward. The term ‘readiness’ comes to
mind here, and some people will take longer to reach this state than others. In
most cases, undertaking this unfreezing exercise will involve a combination of
push and pull techniques to ensure the readiness to move in the desired
direction.
The unfreezing stage is the one that is most relevant and important in the
modern, ever-changing world, as it helps the organisation get to the point where
the reasons for the proposed change are properly understood. Unfreezing is
primarily about preparing people before the change itself occurs, and, if possible,
creating a situation where they actively embrace the change. Without this
acceptance the organisation will be just like a block of ice, resistant to change and
impossible to reshape into another more appropriate form in the future.
Part of the unfreezing stage could be setting up an investigation to collate data
that could be fed back to people to show the importance of a change. For example,
the implementation of smoking bans in public places in various parts of the UK
were preceded by large volumes of evidence and surveys explaining the reasoning
behind the change. As a result the ban was accepted by most people, including
most smokers, who might have been expected to oppose it. In fact, the subsequent
freezing has been so accepted in this case that it would probably now involve
another significant change programme in order to revert to the previous state.
Surely this is a clear sign of a successful change initiative? The unfreezing stage
is often missed in training programmes, with people being sent on courses to
learn new processes or ways of working, with little or no effort being put into
BUSINESS ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Transition
Freeze
Unfreeze
Figure 7.2 Kurt Lewin’s model of organisational change
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explaining to them the need for change. Individuals might perceive that the
change is being implemented because they personally were doing things wrongly
in the past, and it is hardly surprising, in this situation, if they resist the
proposed change.
Transition is about actually making the change. By its very nature this is often a
specific point in time, after which the new ways become the current ways. This
second stage takes place as we make the changes that are needed. It is not an
easy time for people involved in the change, and support and sensitivity towards
mistakes needs to be available during this period as we move to the point where
we have the confidence to refreeze the situation in the third stage. A classic
problem here is that those who have been planning the change have been
thinking about it for some time, whereas they expect everyone else to accept it
at short notice as it is imposed on them.
The end of the change journey is the freezing stage, where we establish a new
place of stability (albeit only temporarily until the next change comes along). The
changes are accepted and become the new norm, as with the ban on smoking in
public places. It is during this period that people become comfortable with their
new routines and form new working relationships. In the modern world there is
a school of thought that says there is no point in fully freezing, since this just
makes it more difficult to get the next unfreezing stage started next time. This
view would seem to suggest a constant world of slushiness where nothing ever
stabilises. The idea is potentially valid, but it is worth considering Lewin’s actual
words in his original groundbreaking article:
A change towards a higher level of group performance is frequently
short-lived. After a ‘shot in the arm’, group life soon reverts to the previous
level. This indicates that it does not suffice to define the objective of planned
change in group performance as the reaching of a different level.
Permanency of the new level, or permanency for a desired period, should be
included in the objective. (Lewin 1947)
Lewin’s concern was a very real one: that without a sufficient level of freezing,
people tend to go back to doing what they are used to doing. This negates any
benefits that were to be achieved by implementing the change in the first place.
Often the simplest models are the best, and we omit any stage of Lewin’s change
model in any significant change initiative at our peril.
PEOPLE CHANGE
Technique 68: The SARAH model
Description of the technique
The SARAH model reflects the reactions of many people when they are faced with
significant change in their lives. It shows the stages they go through, from their
initial dismay on learning about the change to re-establishment of optimism once
they begin to see the possibilities the change brings. The model is illustrated in
Figure 7.3.
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The stages of the SARAH model are as follows:
Shock: Initially people are often shocked when they hear about a change
initiative. They may well not have understood the forces (for
example, more aggressive competition or impending legislation)
that have made the change imperative for the organisation.
They have become used to their existing ways of working,
including their IT systems (however much they might moan
about them).
Anger: Shock then gives way to anger as people begin to understand
what the change may mean. They are angry at the outside forces
that have caused the change and also, often, at their own leaders,
either for identifying the change or perhaps for initiating it. This
anger can also be directed at others, for example BAs, whom
people see as responsible for the change.
Rejection: The anger then shades into rejection of the whole idea of change.
People just want to be left alone and to carry on with things as
they were (however much they might realise inside that this is
not really an option).
Acceptance: Eventually, though, people come to accept, even if not really
to embrace, the idea that change is going to happen and that
they had better get used to it. They are getting used to the
new processes and IT systems and are not afraid of them
any more.
BUSINESS ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Shock
Anger
Rejection
Acceptance
Hope
Time
–ve +veState of mind
Figure 7.3 The SARAH model of change
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Hope: Finally people may begin to see the positive benefits that the
change has brought about, and to gain in hope that the future
will be better and brighter. With regard to processes and
systems, they start to think of ways in which these could be
made even better, and begin to suggest improvements to the
BAs and systems support personnel.
Using the SARAH model
The SARAH reactions to change are perfectly normal, and so should be expected.
The issue for the team implementing the changes is to be aware of them,
and to devise strategies to assist people through this emotional curve. The
implementation plan will need to include these actions, and ensure that time
and resource are allocated to carry them out. The actions identified should be
added to the benefits map as additional enabling changes.
In the first three stages of SARAH, it is important that the BAs, who may
be bearing some of the ire of the business users, does not overreact. Simply
reiterating the reasons for making the change is useless, since the users know
these perfectly well at a rational level; what we are dealing with are their
deeper-seated emotional reactions. However difficult it may be, the only
things the BAs can do are to empathise with the users’ feelings (without
agreeing with their rejection) and be patient until the benefits of the new
arrangements finally become apparent.
It is also worth bearing in mind that where people are within the SARAH model
is closely related to where they are in the process of acquiring any new skills they
need in order to work in the changed world. Thus, the support they receive during
training and initial implementation can have a material effect on the speed with
which they progress through the SARAH model. This is explored more fully in
our discussion of the ‘conscious competence’ model (Technique 70).
Technique 69: The learning cycle
Variants/Aliases
Variants include the Kolb cycle and the theory of learning styles (Honey and
Mumford 1982).
Description of the technique
Various people have, over the years, developed theories about the way people
learn a new skill. David A. Kolb developed his model (often referred to as the
‘Kolb cycle’) in the 1970s, and Peter Honey and Alan Mumford published their
Manual of Learning Styles in 1982. Both present a cycle of the stages that people
go through in learning a new skill, and they have been much used by educational
and training professionals to inform the design of their programmes and to tailor
them to the different ‘learning styles’ of their audiences. They are also useful to
BAs in planning business change programmes, since they provide useful insights
into the stages that the users of changed processes and systems go through, and
into the differing ways in which they may need to be supported through changes.
In addition, knowledge of these cycles is invaluable to those facilitating
workshops (Technique 14), to help ensure that all participants are able and
willing to contribute to the event.
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The standard representation of the Kolb learning cycle is shown in Figure 7.4.
The four stages in Kolb’s model are as follows:
Concrete In this stage learners have a new experience: learning to ride
experience: a bicycle, say. They push off, start pedalling, go a few metres
and fall over.
Observation Now learners reflect on the experience they have just had.
and They wonder why they didn’t get further, speculate that
reflection: maybe their balance wasn’t right or they didn’t start pedalling
early enough, and try to work out what went wrong – and
what they could do better next time.
Forming Based on their reflections, learners now develop a theory
abstract about what they are attempting to do, in this case riding a
concepts: bike. They theorise, for example, that success has something
to do with balance, gaining initial impetus and sustaining
their velocity long enough to cycle with some stability.
Testing in new Finally, learners work out how they will apply their theories
situations: at their next attempt.
All humans go through this cycle in learning something, but we differ in where
we like to start. In our description we have started with the concrete experience,
BUSINESS ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Concrete
experience
Testing in new
situations
Observation and
reflection
Forming abstract
concepts
Figure 7.4 Kolb’s learning cycle
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but other people prefer to start somewhere else. For example, many people in the
IT field like to start by studying their subject, assimilating the theory and
planning in advance before they attempt the experience.
Peter Honey and Alan Mumford, in their ‘learning styles’ (Honey and Mumford
1982), utilise the same concepts but characterise people into four classes
corresponding to the stages of the cycle, as shown in Figure 7.5.
The four personality types identified by Honey and Mumford are:
Activist: Activists jump in to new experiences with gusto and are
open-minded and flexible in their approach. They tend to act
first and think about the consequences afterwards.
Reflector: Reflectors are cautious and like to collect and analyse data before
acting. They reach conclusions slowly.
Theorist: Theorists value rationality and objectivity, and assemble the
facts into coherent theories. They are very disciplined in their
approach.
Pragmatist: Pragmatists get impatient with endless discussion, and are
always looking for practical ways in which ideas can be
implemented. They tend to get to the point quickly and act
decisively.
MANAGE CHANGE
Activist
stage
Pragmatist
stage
Reflector
stage
Theorist
stage
Figure 7.5 Honey and Mumford’s learning styles