HRW. Issue: July 2009

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30 HRW / July 2009 www.hydroworld.com

For high cut slopes in the Himalayas, use of proper excavation and support methods are important to ensure

stability during hydro project construction. The photo on the left shows high cut slopes with vulnerable joints.

In the right photo, pre-stressed cable bolts are being used to support the slope.

excavations for surface powerhouses or

for high cut slopes for other structures:

— Complete geotechnical mapping,

on a 1:1,000 scale, covering the entire

area of the cut slope, as well as about 50

meters on the sides and above the top of

the proposed cutting line;

— Excavate two to three test tun-

nels to probe the slumped or weathered

zones and determine the nature of any

discontinuities;

— Drill two to three holes beyond

the periphery at an elevation 10 to 20

meters above the top of the cut line, to

delineate the overburden and weathered

or slumped rock that must be dealt with

immediately as the cutting begins and to

ascertain the quality of rock in deeper

excavations and thus both establish pre-

treatment before commencing actual

excavation and determine the adequacy

of rock supports;

— Perform laboratory tests on rock

samples to determine physical and engi-

neering properties;

— Perform in-situ rock mechanic tests

for shear strength, modulus of deforma-

tion, and elasticity; separate tests may be

necessary for shear strength along joint

planes;

— Include suf cient provisions for

rock support according to numerical

analysis/design calculations and proper

scheduling in the tender for the works or

contract with the executing agency;

— Use controlled blasting and im-

mediate quick rock support during

execution of a high cut slope (height

of unsupported areas may not be more

than 2 meters for individual excavation

rounds); and

— Use pre-strengthening measures

like grouting in weak rocks or vulnerable

areas.

Locating construction materials

The choice of a dam type greatly de-

projects in the Himalayas. Since 1975,

NHPC has completed more than 200

kilometers of tunnels in the region. Al-

though many projects with tunnels

have been completed in the Himalayas

by other companies as well, some have

taken a decade or more, with the delays

mainly attributed to tunnel completion.

Contractors cite poor rock conditions

as the prime reason for cost and time

overruns.

Keys to successful tunneling include:

— Investigation and rock mechanics

testing, before construction begins, to

develop a suitable tunneling method, se-

lect support elements for different types

of rock, estimate the quantity of work to

be performed, and identify geohazards

that require treatment (such as fractured

and crushed rock zones, fault crossings,

water ingress under high pressure, and

rock burst areas); and

— Provision of immediate primary

support in the heading portions, consist-

ing of shotcrete or  ber-reinforced shot-

crete, together with rock bolts. When this

support is not in place, there are likely to

be collapses and subsequent disruptions

to the work.

The tailrace tunnel for 480-MW

Uri 1 provides an example of ef cient

support methods in poor and highly

pends on the availability of construction

materials. In the Himalayas, the rocks

contain a considerable percentage of free

mica, rendering them unsuitable for use

as aggregate. In addition, because of the

steep bed slopes in the rivers, the occur-

rence of suitable river shoals or terrace

deposits is rare. This results in greater

dependence on rock quarries.

Detailed work is required to choose

safe and environmentally benign loca-

tions for quarries. This work involves

studying the available rock types (which

could be used for aggregate) and per-

forming surveys, testing, and con rma-

tion regarding exploitable quantities.

The optimal choice is to locate quarries

in the area that will be submerged when

the reservoir is impounded because this

avoids affecting new areas. If suitable

deposits are not found in the reservoir

area, alternative locations for the quarry

are identi ed, along with a plan for res-

toration of the quarry site after construc-

tion work is complete. Such restoration

plans are now part of the environmental

management plan included in the en-

vironmental impact assessment for all

NHPC projects.

Tunneling in uncertain rock conditions

Tunneling is an intrinsic part of hydro

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________________

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32 HRW / July 2009 www.hydroworld.com

stressed rock conditions. Along the

course of the 2-kilometer-long tunnel,

the contractor encountered a folded

thrust zone between the sedimentary

formation and the meta-volcanics. Ac-

cording to the geomechanical classi ca-

tion developed by Z.T. Bieniawski, the

rock encountered in the tunnel included

1 percent class II, 49 percent class III,

28 percent of class IV, and 22 percent

class V. There are  ve rock classes in

the geomechanical classi cation, from I

(very good) to V (very poor).

Despite the poor rock quality at

this site, no steel arches were needed

for support, nor was there a single in-

stance of cavities or heavy overbreak.

(Overbreak is rock excavated in excess

of that needed to install the tunnel. In

this case, overbreak would result from

weak rock or close fractures or shear

zones that could not be controlled.)

Support elements used at this site

consisted of pre-grouting of the rock

mass, division of the tunnel section

into several parts for easier excava-

tion in poor rock, application of 200-

to 250-millimeter-thick shotcrete

with a double layer of wire mesh and

water-expanding bolts, and grouted

dowels. Successful completion of Uri

1 brought about changes in tunneling

techniques in the Himalayas, particu-

larly with respect to the use of flex-

ible supports and pre-grouting as a

stabilization measure. The tunneling

method used at this site, designed by

Sweco of Sweden, is based on the New

Australian Tunneling Method. The

civil contractor was Uri Civil Contrac-

tor AB, a Swedish-British consortium

led by Skanska.

The use of tunnel boring machines

in the Himalayas has met with lim-

ited success. The Parbati 2 project is a

good example. This project involves

trans-basin water transfer between two

silt emerged from a probe hole under

high pressure, with a discharge of

5,000 to 6,000 liters per minute. This

caused inundation of the tunnel for

nearly 2 kilometers, and the tunnel bor-

ing machine was virtually buried under

silt. The discharge slowly subsided to

2,000 liters per minute and continues

more than two years after the leak be-

gan. As of February 2009, discharge

had reduced to 1,350 liters per minute.

An expert group consisting of experts

in contracts, civil design, cost engineer-

ing, geology, and  nancing has recom-

mended options for treating the dif cult

zone so that the balance of the tunnel-

ing can be completed. These options

include building a bypass tunnel and

treating the weak zone by grouting.

Conclusions

Development of the nearly 119,000 MW

of hydro potential from rivers in India

that arise in the Himalayas relies on

 nding solutions to challenges posed by

the region’s complex geology. Through

33 years of experience developing hydro

projects in this area, NHPC Limited

has developed solutions to a number of

geotechnical problems. These solutions

have allowed construction of some of the

largest dams and hydraulic structures in

the world.

■

The views expressed in this article are

those of the author and not of NHPC

Limited management.

Note

Code of Practice for Sub-Surface Investigation

for Power House Sites, IS 10060: 1981,

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), New

Delhi, India, 1981 and 2004. A number of

other standards for geotechnical investiga-

tion and subsurface exploration are avail-

able under Division 14 Water Resources,

Section WRD-5 of the BIS.

rivers via a 31.5-kilometer-long head-

race tunnel. This is one of the longest

water-conducting tunnels in the world.

Total tunneling for the project, which

includes feeder tunnels and access adits,

is 57.2 kilometers. Construction of this

project began in 2002 and is scheduled

to be complete in 2010, according to the

revised program.

One element of success at this project

involved use of a double shield inclined

tunnel boring machine to excavate two

inclined pressure shafts. These shafts

are 1,546 meters in length and 3.5 me-

ters in diameter, at a dif cult angle of 30

degrees, and run through meta-basics

and chlorite schist bands. Progress in

the second pressure shaft was so fast that

the tunnel was completed in 136 days in

2006. The main reason for the success of

this tunnel boring machine is the moder-

ate strength of the meta-basics, which is

amenable to boring without dif culty.

Use of an open shield tunnel boring

machine to complete the portion of the

headrace tunnel that passes below a high

ridge met with less success. Initially, the

machine worked fairly well in granite

gneiss, schistose gneiss, and schist bands.

However, progress slowed as the tunnel

entered quartzites, and heavy-duty cut-

ters were required. Simultaneously, as

the rock cover on the tunnel increased to

800 to 1,000 meters, the jointed quartz-

ite gave rise to wedge failures near the

cutter head.

Because there were site limitations to

using shotcrete, the contractor used wire

mesh with channels in the crown por-

tion, together with rock bolts, as support

measures in class III conditions. In class

IV and some area of class III, ring beams

were used.

From 4,000 meters onwards, the

tunnel encountered closely jointed

zones and silt- lled discontinuities in

the tunnel. At 4,056 meters, water and

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34 HRW / July 2009 www.hydroworld.com

New Hydro

Aquamarine, Airtricity plan

1,000 MW of ocean energy

Aquamarine, an af liate of Scottish and

Southern Energy (SSE), and renewable

energy developer Airtricity, a division of

SSE, are working to develop 1,000 MW

of wave energy sites in the British Isles

by 2020.

Aquamarine and Airtricity agreed

in February 2009 to form a 50-50 joint

venture to develop sites off the United

Kingdom and Ireland. They said work

on the  rst two sites has begun, with

plans to advance additional sites over

three years.

Wheeler said the agreement gives

Airtricity, a wind and hydro developer,

a  rst option on sites developed with

Aquamarine expertise, said Airtricity

Director Stephen Wheeler.

Study ﬁ nds extensive ocean

power potential in Chile

A study by the Inter-American Devel-

opment Bank (IADB)  nds Chile has a

high potential for wave and tidal energy

development.

Energy Minister Marcelo Tokman

said the report con rms that Chile has

great potential for ocean energy and

details steps to follow in developing the

new energy source.

The report identi es attributes and

criteria for project selection and identi-

 es priority areas to establish projects. It

also indicated a need to implement spe-

ci c measurements of ocean generating

potential in certain areas of the country.

In addition, the report said it is necessary

to review site plans and existing infra-

structure to take advantage of generation

opportunities.

IADB is to promote research of the

new technologies to support creation of

a new market in Chile that can export

knowledge to the world. The government

of Chile previously announced plans to

create a renewable energy center to serve

as a clearinghouse and sponsor of non-

conventional renewable energy sources

for Chile and for South America.

The study was conducted by IADB

in coordination with Chile’s economic

development agency, Corporacion de

Fomento de la Produccion (Corfo), and

Comision Nacional de Energia.

Israel wave energy developer

to supply units to China

Israel wave energy developer SDE En-

ergy Ltd. will supply wave plants to Chi-

na, with the  rst installation planned off

Guangdong Province in southern China.

SDE Managing Director Shmuel

Ovadia said two joint venture companies

formed to implement the agreement plan

to build an initial model in Guangzhou.

It is to be deployed by the end of 2009.

Once the model has been proven, Ovadia

said the companies will begin installing

the plants in China.

The Chinese government must ap-

prove the installations and is to purchase

electricity generated by the plants, Ova-

dia said. Construction of the wave power

plants is to be  nanced by investors from

Hong Kong and China.

SDE’s technology converts the ver-

tical motion of waves into hydraulic

pressure, which is then used to generate

electricity. The units, which are installed

on breakwaters, rest on the surface of the

ocean and are connected to the break-

water by a hydraulic arm. The units can

produce energy from both the rising and

falling of waves.

Ovadia said, to date, SDE has built eight

model wave power plants, with  nancial

assistance from the chief scientist of Is-

rael’s Ministry of Industry and Trade.

Oceanlinx receives Australian

development grant

Oceanlinx Ltd. of Australia is using

a A$2.95 million (US$1.93 million)

grant from the Australian government

to design and test the next generation

of Oceanlinx technology. The grant,

awarded under the AusIndustry Climate

Ready program, is to be matched by

Oceanlinx.

The technology Oceanlinx is develop-

ing consists of wave generators tethered

to the sea bottom that use oscillating

water column technology. Wave action

compresses air inside the unit, and that

compressed air turns turbine-generators

to produce electricity.

Oceanlinx said it successfully re-

deployed its full-scale wave energy con-

version unit at Port Kembla, Australia,

in early February for continued testing.

First deployed in 2005, the unit has been

undergoing planned refurbishment and

modi cations for several months.

Brieﬂ y…

Voith Hydro and RWE Innogy formed

Voith Hydro Ocean Current Technol-

ogies to develop ocean current power tech-

nologies and projects. The German compa-

nies said investment would total 30 million

euros (US$37.8 million) over the next few

years. ... Finland-based utility Fortum

and Swedish wave generator developer

Seabased Industries are seeking govern-

ment support to develop a 10-MW wave

energy project off the west coast of Sweden.

Continued on page 38

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www.hydroworld.com July 2009 / HRW 35

Small Hydro

Uganda names Norway ﬁ rm

to build 7.5-MW Birara River

The government of Uganda named Ja-

cobsen Elektro AS of Norway to build

a 7.5-MW hydroelectric project on the

Birara River.

The state-run New Vision said the

project, on the border of Kanungu and

Rukungiri districts, will be supervised

by the Uganda Rural Electri cation

Agency.

Jacobsen Elektro also contracted New

Plan Consulting Engineers to perform

a feasibility study and environmental

impact assessment. New Plan is to com-

plete the  rst phase of the study and as-

sessment by the end of 2009.

Of cials of Jacobsen Elektro and the

Uganda Ministry of Energy and Mineral

Development are to examine the results

after which construction is to begin.

Australia consultant to plan

expansion of 4-MW Afulilo

Samoa’s Ministry of Finance has named

SMEC International Pty Ltd. of Aus-

tralia to develop a plan to augment the

capacity of Samoa’s 4-MW Afulilo hy-

droelectric project.

SMEC received a US$1 million con-

tract to prepare the Afulilo Environmen-

tal Enhancement Project.

Turbine rehab awarded for

Sweden’s 9-MW Edsforsen

Hydropower operator Fortum Genera-

tion AB awarded a contract to Litostroj

E.I. of Slovenia to refurbish two turbines

at the 9-MW Edsforsen project on Swe-

den’s Klaralven River.

Litostroj will supply two new Kaplan

turbine runners and perform related re-

furbishment work at the Edsforsen plant,

which was built in 1949.

Work is to include design and equip-

ment for refurbishing the vertical shaft

units, with new runners, new inner head

covers, new turbine shafts, and other

parts. Work is to be performed in 2010

and 2011.

Austria agency names supplier

for Kainischtraun piping

Osterreichische Bundesforste AG (OBf)

named Austrian  rm Etertec Tiefbau

GmbH to supply pressure piping for the

3.5-MW Kainischtraun hydroelectric

project.

Etertec Tiefbau GmbH is supply-

ing 3,600 meters of pressure pipe and

 ttings for the small hydro project in

Kainisch and Bad Aussee.

ESHA celebrates anniversary

and achievements

The European Small Hydropower As-

sociation (ESHA) is celebrating its 20th

anniversary this year.

Looking toward the future, ESHA

said a newly adopted renewable energy

sources directive paving the way for 20

percent renewable energy by 2020 will

bring a new drive for sustainable hy-

dropower development in the European

Union (EU).

The organization also said it plans

to continue to represent the interest

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____________

36 HRW / July 2009 www.hydroworld.com

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of sustainable hydropower within the

renewable energy family, thereby con-

tributing to EU’s security of energy

supply, to economic development, and

to abatement of climate change.

Representation over 20 years has

served to position the small hydro

sector and enabled it to effectively

promote the beneficial use of hydro-

power in the EU, ESHA said. It has

helped encourage the development

of small hydropower — projects with

an installed capacity of up to 10 MW

— through lobbying and other activi-

ties, including conferences, seminars,

workshops, and studies.

The non-pro t association based

in Brussels, Belgium, promotes small

hydro plants and emphasizes environ-

mental integration. ESHA was created

through an initiative of the European

Commission in 1989 and has repre-

sented the interests of the small hydro-

power sector in the EU since that time.

ESHA is a founding member of the

European Renewable Energy Council.

It also is a member of the Alliance for

Rural Electri cation.

Mavel equips refurbishment of

Finland’s 862-kW Finnholm

Czech equipment supplier Mavel a.s. re-

ceived a contract from Vaasa Engineer-

ing Oy of Finland to supply a turbine for

refurbishment of the 862-kW Finnholm

hydroelectric project on Finland’s Ahta-

vanojoki River.

Mavel said it is to provide a double-

regulated Kaplan bulb turbine, steel

intake, draft tube, and lubricating and

cooling system. The Mavel KA1800K4

turbine has a runner diameter of 1,800

millimeters and four runner blades.

Finnholm, which is owned by Oy

Herrfors Ab, has a net head of 5.35 me-

ters and a  ow of 18.5 cubic meters per

second. Mavel expects to commission

the unit in September 2009.

On line reports: Macedonia,

Norway, Panama, Peru

New and refurbished small hydropower

projects in Macedonia, Norway, Pana-

ma, and Peru are now operating.

Utility EVN Macedonia brought

on line the refurbished and upgraded

9.6-MW Matka hydroelectric project

on Macedonia’s Treska River. The

Macedonian Information Agency said

Hydropol of the Czech Republic re-

furbished Matka under a concession

to modernize and manage seven small

hydro plants. New turbines and other

equipment were supplied by GE Nor-

way, while generators were provided by

INDAR Spain. Matka, formerly total-

ing 3.7 MW, was built in 1938.

Norway utility Statkraft began op-

eration of the 2.9-MW Rodberg hydro-

electric project in Norway’s Buskerud

County. The project uses 60 percent

of the water drop between the 206-

MW Nore 1 and 63-MW Nore 2 hydro

projects by using the minimum  ow

release from Rodberg Dam. The plant

is to have an average annual genera-

tion of 15.5 gigawatt-hours. Statkraft

said development of Rodberg meets

the government’s and Statkraft’s goal

of upgrading and extending its existing

hydropower projects.

Developer Istmus Hydro Power Corp.

has commissioned its 10-MW Concep-

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___________

www.hydroworld.com July 2009 / HRW 37

Visit us at Waterpower XVI, Booth 2001

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cion hydropower project on the Piedra

River in Panama’s Chiriqui Province.

The project is 500 kilometers west of

Panama City in the Chico River Basin.

Equipment supplier Mavel a.s. of the

Czech Republic said Istmus Hydro con-

tracted a consortium of ABB Inc. and

Mavel to provide equipment and super-

vise installation and commissioning.

Canada tungsten miner Malaga

Inc. placed the 600-kW Pasto Bueno

project into commercial operation on

the Pelagatos River at Malaga’s Pasto

Bueno mining operation in northern

Peru. Hidropesac, Malaga’s joint hydro

venture with Emerging Power Develop-

ers S.A. of Switzerland and Peru energy

company Electrokraft S.A., brought the

project’s 450-kW horizontal and 150-kW

vertical Pelton turbines on line. Stucky

Ltd. of Switzerland assisted the develop-

ment. Hidropesac invested more than

US$3 million in the project. Construc-

tion was  nanced through sale of carbon

credits under the United Nations’ Clean

Development Mechanism.

Brieﬂ y …

The board of Brazil’s Agencia Na-

cional de Energia Eletrica (ANEEL)

approved the application of Casa de

Pedra Energia Ltda. to act as an inde-

pendent power producer by deploy-

ment and operation of the 8-MW Rio

dos Indios hydro project. ANEEL also

authorized Ferro Liga Ltda. to act as

a self-generator of electricity through

development and operation of 1.5-

MW Maria Celia Mauad Notini, in

Minas Gerais State. … The African

Development Bank approved a loan

and a grant totaling 11 million Units of

Account (US$16.4 million) to fund an

electricity supply project in Leso-

tho. The project focuses on renewable

energy, including mini-hydropower

projects. … Abu Dhabi National En-

ergy Co. acquired a 50 percent stake

in the Caribbean portfolio of Mar-

ubeni Corp., including 40 percent of

Jamaica Public Service Co. and its

eight small hydroelectric plants totaling

21 MW. The US$320 million deal forms

a joint venture portfolio of equity stakes

in generation and transmission facilities

in Jamaica, the Bahamas, Trinidad and

Tobago, and Curacao.

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________________

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Professional Listings

New Hydro (continued)

The  rms submitted an application of interest to the Swedish En-

ergy Agency for investment support of a full-scale wave power site

to utilize 500 generating units. … Swedish utility Vattenfall has

acquired a 51 percent stake in Pandion Ltd., an Irish ocean ener-

gy site development company, for 500,000 euros (US$648,225).

Vattenfall said ocean energy developer Wavebob Ltd. will hold

the remaining 49 percent of Pandion, which has applied for ocean

energy sites on the west coast of Ireland. … British engine and

power systems maker Rolls-Royce plans to embark on sea trials

of a 500-kW tidal power turbine-generator in the United King-

dom in the summer of 2009, said Ric Parker, director of research

and technology. The unit was developed with Tidal Generation

Limited. Rolls-Royce says it plans to test a 1-MW version about

18 months later. … Npower renewables and wave energy de-

veloper Wavegen are moving forward with development of the

4-MW Siadar Wave Energy Project on the Isle of Lewis in

the Hebrides Islands of Scotland. The companies received con-

sent from the Scottish government for the project.

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