Harman Oren Solomon. The Price of Altruism: George Price and the Search for the Origins of Kindness
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33. Hamilton, Narrow Roads, 22.
34. On the decline of eugenics including Penrose’s role see Daniel J. Kevles, In
the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), especially 148–222.
35. Hamilton, Narrow Roads, 14.
36. Ibid., 4.
37. Ibid., 12–13.
38. Ibid., 15, 5.
39. In fact Hamilton’s supervisor Cedric Smith had once introduced the two, but
Maynard Smith couldn’t remember the encounter. Hamilton was shy and very
unassuming, and Maynard Smith, like everyone else at the time, wasn’t interested
in the genetics of altruism.
40. Ullica Segerstr le, Defenders of the Truth: The Sociobiology Debate
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 64.
41. The other two Oxford men at the meeting were the ethologist Niko Tinbergen
and the geneticist Arthur Cain. Maynard Smith recalled that it was Cain who
came up with the term “kin selection” though Cain himself had no such
recollection.
42. John Maynard Smith, “Kin Selection and Group Selection,” Nature 201
(1964), 1145–47. Maynard Smith’s model became known as the “haystack
model” and has excited a steady amount of discussion and criticism ever since.
See Sober and Wilson, Unto Others, 67–71. For Wynne-Edwards’s own reply see
Nature 201 (1964), 1147.
43. William Hamilton, “The Evolution of Altruistic Behavior,” American
Naturalist 97 (1963), 354–56. Here Hamilton collapsed cost and benefit into one
variable, k, and so the equation was even simpler: k > 1/r. This was the only math
that appeared in the article.
44. Hamilton, Narrow Roads, 29–30.
45. Sober and Wilson, Unto Others, 35–36.
46. David Lack, Population Studies of Birds (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966).
47. G. C. Williams and D. C. Williams, “Natural Selection of Individually
Harmful Social Adaptations among Sibs with Special Reference to Social
Insects,” Evolution 11 (1957), 32–39.
48. Fisher, The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, 158.
49. This formulation is taken from Sober and Wilson, Unto Others, 38–39.
50. George C. Williams, Adaptation and Natural Selection (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1966), 273.
51. W. D. Hamilton, “Extraordinary Sex Ratios,” Science (156) 1967, 477–88.
52. Hamilton, Narrow Roads, 131–42.
53. Hamilton, “Extraordinary Sex Ratios,” 477.
54. The first to point this out was Robert Colwell, “Group Selection Is Implicated
in the Evolution of Female-Biased Sex Ratios,” Nature 190 (1981), 401–4.
55. Hamilton, “Extraordinary Sex Ratios” see the section on “sex ratios and
polygyny.” Hamilton did, however, make a mathematically imprecise allusion to
the effect that certain optimal strategies may reflect a compromise between
conflicting individual and group-based selection pressures. He buried it, however,
in footnote 43.
56. Hamilton, Narrow Roads, 186. I thank Peter Henderson for a wonderful
description of his time with Hamilton in the Amazon.
CHAPTER 8: NO EASY WAY
1. George Price letter to Hubert Humphrey, May 2, 1957, GPP.
2. George Price correspondence with Senator Hubert Humphrey, February
1956–December 1959, GPP; Donald S. Harrington, “To Deal with China Crisis;
Adjudication by International Court of Justice Proposed,” New York Times,
September 19, 1958.
3. George R. Price articles in Popular Science Monthly and THINK, March
1959–November 1960; George Price letters to Claude Shannon, October 11 and
December 8, 1960; George Price–H. J. Muller correspondence, January–February
1960, GPP.
4. On Skinner see Daniel W. Bjork, B. F. Skinner: A Life (Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association, 1997); William T. O’Donohue and Kyle E.
Ferguson, The Psychology of B .F. Skinner (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001);
Daniel N. Weiner, B. F. Skinner: Benign Anarchist (Boston: Allyn and Bacon,
1996).
5. “Skinner’s Utopia: Panacea, or Path to Hell?” Time, September 20, 1971,
47–53, found in GPP. See also Philip J. Pauly, Controlling Life: Jacques Loeb
and the Engineering Ideal in Biology (New York: Oxford University Press,
1987).
6. George R. Price, “The Teaching Machine,” THINK, March 1959, 10–14, quote
on 10.
7. George Price letter to B. F. Skinner, October 27, 1957, GPP.
8. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (1840), quoted in drafts of No
Easy Way, chapter 6, GPP. Also George Price, “The Warning from the Distant
Past,” draft, probably of chapter 10, GPP.
9. Cass Canfield letter to George Price, March 3, 1958, GPP; A. Boardman letter
to George Price, August 11, 1966, GPP.
10. Ross Wetzsteon, Republic of Dreams: Greenwich Village, the American
Bohemia, 1910–1960 (New York, Simon & Schuster, 2002); George Price
passport, GPP.
11. George Price letter to Hubert Humphrey, December 8, 1959, GPP; George
Price–Richard Winslow Correspondence, 1959–1961, GPP; No Easy Way draft,
circa 1960, GPP.
12. George Price letter to Dr. Nathan S. Kline, October 28, 1958, GPP.
13. George Price letter to Richard Winslow, February 29, 1960, GPP.
14. George Price letter to Robert Latimer, February 13, 1961, GPP; Joan letter to
George Price, November 12, 1961, GPP; George Price letter to Henry Noel,
February 10, 1961, GPP; George Price letter to Al Somit, October 12, 1961, GPP;
Fred Schneider letter to George Price, April 10, 1960, BLGPC, KPX1_1.5.
15. Donald Ferguson letter to George Price, September 21, 1960, GPP.
16. George R. Price, drafts of “Fallacies of Random Neural Networks and
Self-Organization” and “A Theory of the Function of the Hymen,” GPP.
17. IBM Annual Report (1961), 7.
18. Ibid., 6; George Price letter to Donald Ferguson, October 28, 1960, GPP;
George Price letter to Richard Winslow, October 15, 1962, GPP; George Price
letter to Al Somit, June 19, 1962, GPP.
19. Graham DuShane (editor) letter to George Price, July 19, 1962, GPP; George
Price letter to Ralph Graves, September 5, 1970, GPP.
20. Alice Avery Price letters to George Price, November 1962–November 1963,
GPP.
21. B. F. Skinner, “The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching,” Harvard
Educational Review 24 (1954), 86–97.
22. George R. Price, “Some Suggestions About Programmed Instruction,” Market
Requirements Memorandum, IBM, January 31, 1963, GPP.
23. George Price letter to Richard Winslow, December 17, 1963, GPP.
24. George Price letter to Emanuel Piore, March 17, 1969, GPP; George Price
letter to John Isaacson, October 28, 1964, GPP; George Price letter to Stephen
(last name not known), January 30, 1972, GPP.
25. George R. Price, “The Climate of Invention,” THINK, June 1959, 24.
26. George Price–Paul Samuelson correspondence, December 17,
1965–September 14, 1966, GPP; George R. Price, “Report on Marginal
Optimization,” draft, IBM-DSD Poughkeepsie, January 1964, GPP.
27. George Price letter to Paul A. Samuelson, December 17, 1965, GPP. Bob
Solow and Andreas Papandreou both became prominent economists.
28. Paul A. Samuelson letter to George Price, January 13, 1966, GPP.
29. George Price letters to Fred Brooks, October 12 and 21, 1964, GPP; George
Price letter to Tatiana, May 31, 1964, GPP; George Price letter to Fairfield,
August 6, 1964, GPP.
30. John C. Eccles letter to George Price, January 20, 1965, BL:KPX1_3.2,
BLGPC.
31. Donald Ferguson letter to George Price, September 21, 1960, GPP; George
Price letter to Howard Klevens, October 31, 1967, GPP.
32. George Price letter to Donald Ferguson, March 12, 1966, GPP.
33. George Price letter to Donald Ferguson, September 4, 1966, GPP; Donald
Ferguson letter to George Price, January 2, 1967, GPP.
34. St. Hilda’s and St. Hugh’s “Reservation Agreement,” September 6, 1966,
GPP; George Price letter to Annamarie Price, October 12, 1966, GPP; George
Price–A. Boardman correspondence, August 26, 1966-June 12, 1967, GPP;
Edison Price letter to George Price, September 11, 1970, GPP.
35. George Price letter to W. A. Brocker, July 11, 1967, GPP; George Price letter
to Heinrich Kluver, July 8, 1967, BL:KPX1_1.4, BLGPC; George Price letter to
Annamarie and Kathleen Price, November 13, 1967, GPP; George Price letter to
Howard Klevens, October 31, 1967, GPP.
CHAPTER 9: LONDON
1. It wouldn’t last long, though. The boutique closed eight months after opening, a
victim of local business interests and shoplifting. The Fool’s mural was removed
by civic order, but not before Paul McCartney graffitied the windows with the
name of the Beatles’ upcoming new hit, “Hey Jude.”
2. Andrew Loog Oldham, Stoned: A Memoir of London in the 1960s (London: St.
Martin’s Press, 2001).
3. George Price letters to Tatiana, November 11 and December 12, 1967, GPP;
George Price letter to Thomas Meyer, December 18, 1967, GPP.
4. Ibid.; George Price to Howard Klevens, October 31, 1967, GPP.
5. George Price letter to A. Boardman, December 25, 1967, GPP.
6. Ibid.
7. On the New Left in postwar England see Michael Kenny, The First New Left:
British Intellectuals After Stalin (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1995).
Descriptions of the clashes at Grosvenor Square can be found in Ian Bone, Bash
the Rich: True-Life Confessions of an Anarchist in the UK (London: Naked Guide
Ltd., 2006) and in “Mick Farren—the Battle of Grosvenor Square London 1968”
on YouTube.
8. Tatiana letter to George Price, December 30, 1967, GPP; George Price letter to
Thomas Meyer, December 18, 1967, GPP; Edison Price letter to George Price,
August 1, 1946, GPP; George Price letter to Alive Avery Price, February 27,
1968, GPP.
9. George Price letters to UCL librarian, December 12, 1967, and May 10, 1968,
GPP; George Price letter to UCL Medical School Librarian, January 15, 1968,
GPP; George Price letter to Thomas Meyer, December 18, 1967, GPP.
10. George Price letter to Bill Hamilton, March 5, 1968, GPP/BLGPC.
11. George Price letter to Thomas Meyer, December 18, 1967, and January 29,
1968, GPP; George Price letter to Kathleen Price, April 11, 1968, GPP.
12. Bill Hamilton letter to George Price, March 26, 1968, BL:KPX1_4.5.5.
13. Hamilton describes his own perception of George’s depressing revelation in
Narrow Roads, 320.
14. Draft of an unsent letter from George Price to Bill Hamilton, March 26, 1968,
BL:KPX1_4.5. 8.
15. The letter is addressed to “W.D. Hamilton, ? ?, Brazil.”
16. George Price letter to Kathleen, April 11, 1968, GPP.
17. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, chapter 17. Antlers are effective shields
against other branching antlers, Darwin wrote, but would not protect against
unbranched antlers projecting forward.
18. G. Stonehouse, “Thermoregulatory Function of Growing Antlers,” Nature
218 (1968), 870–72.
19. Draft of George Price, “Antlers, Intraspecific Combat, and Altruism,” 1–32,
BLGPC.
20. Ibid., 16.
21. The precise description was this: “Basically, get even behaviour requires that
animal A in conflict with B should hold in memory a measure, SB, of the
seriousness of recent Category II (all-out combat) acts by B, and a measure, SA,
of its own recent category II acts against B. Then the tendency, RAB, for A to
retaliate against B is given by R
AB
= S
B
– S
A
. The strategy for A against a roughly
equal opponent, B, can be stated as: ‘Fight as hard as possible at Category I level
(deescalated). If SB > SA, retaliate at level II. If S
B
S
A
, fight at level I; except
that when combat has been at level I for a long time, try a probe’” Ibid., 17.
22. Ibid., 19.
23. George did not consider that punishing exacts a price, and that free riders who
fail to punish would therefore hold an advantage over those who did. This kind of
free-riding game-theoretic thinking would occupy modelers in later years.
24. George Price letter to Bill Hamilton, August 3, 1968, GPP.
25. George Price letter to Thomas Meyer, October 14, 1968, GPP; John Orr
declaration on Flat 3, 1a, Little Titchfield, July 30, 1968, GPP.
26. Bill Hamilton letter to George Price, August 29, 1968, GPP.
27. The condition was that there should be statistical association between the
genotypes of donor and receiver; this is what is meant by “altruists finding one
another”: organisms that share those genes that contribute to their behaving
altruistically coming together in groups.
28. Strictly speaking, George had not shown how the covariance equation could
translate into Hamilton’s kin-selection equation, replacing relatedness with
association, but he understood immediately that this was now possible. For a
formal derivation that does this, see Appendix 1: Covariance and Kin Selection.
29. George Price letter to Alice Avery Price, September 21, 1968, GPP.
30. George Price letter to Alice Avery Price, September 24, 1968, GPP.
31. George Price letter to Annamarie Price, October 2, 1968, GPP; George Price
letter to Howard Klevens, October 9, 1968, GPP.
32. Kohn, A Reason for Everything, 221.
33. Steve Jones, “View from the Lab: A Mastermind for a Number of Reasons,”
UK Telegraph, January 23, 2002.
34. Ibid.; Newton E. Morton, “Professor Cedric B. Smith, pioneer in statistical
genetics: Died January 10, 2002, at the age of 84,” Genetic Epidemiology 22, no.
4 (2002), 283–84.
35. George Price letter to Annamarie Price, October 2, 1968; interview with
Annamarie Price, April 13, 2008.
36. George Price, “Supplementary Details of Intended Research,” draft proposal
to the Science Research Council, BLGPC, KPX_5.4.
37. A corollary of this system would be for males to take advantage of any mating
opportunity outside of marriage, but not to provide for any children born. Thus,
two distinct categories of female sexual partners would become recognized, with
dichotomous treatment of each.
38. George Price letter to Ludwig Luft, January 29, 1969, GPP. George asked
Luft, a German-born Jewish émigré to America, for the lyrics from Schumann’s
Dichterliebe for a paper he was preparing on the evolution of love.
39. George Price letter to Edison Price, February 3, 1969, GPP; Edison Price
letters to George, February 22 and March 2, 1969, GPP; George Price letter to
Kathleen Price, March 5, 1969, GPP.
40. George Price letter to Kathleen Price, May 1, 1969, GPP.
41. Interview with Kathleen Price, April 13, 2008; George Price letter to Ludwig
Luft, July 22, 1969, GPP.
42. George Price letter to Tatiana, May 11, 1969, GPP; George Price letter to
Kathleen Price, March 5, 1969, GPP. In truth Edison had paid for George’s airfare
from London and expenses in New York, but George was sour over an unpaid
loan and little help with the apartment.
43. George Price letter to Ludwig Luft, July 22, 1969, GPP; George Price letter to
Tatiana, May 11, 1969, GPP.
44. Garrett Hardin, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” Science 162 (1968),
1243–48.
45. The amateur mathematician was William Forster Lloyd (1794–1852) and the
source, W. F. Lloyd, Two Lectures on the Checks to Population (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1833), reprinted (in part) in Population, Evolution, and Birth
Control, ed. Garret Hardin (San Francisco: Freeman, 1964), 37.
46. Hardin, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” 1244.
47. Sewall Wright letter to George Price, May 22, 1968, GPP.
48. George Price, “Supplementary Details of Intended Research,” draft proposal
to the Science Research Council, BLGPC, KPX_5. 4. These observations would
later be challenged in the ethological literature.
49. SRC grant proposal, written by Cedric Smith, March 31, 1969, and signed by
the head of the department, Harry Harris, BLGPC, KPX1_10.1.
50. George Price letter to Tatiana, May 11, 1969, GPP.
51. John S. Price, “The Ritualization of Agonistic Behaviour as a Determinant of
Variation along the Neuroticism/Stability Dimension of Personality,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 62 (1969), 37–40.
52. Ibid., 39.
53. See S. A. Frank and M. Slatkin, “The Distribution of Allelic Effects under
Mutation and Selection,” Genetics Research 55 (1990), 111–17.
54. See Appendix 2: The Full Price Equation and Levels of Selection for a
derivation of the full Price equation and an explanation of how it can be
partitioned and expanded.
55. Hamilton, Narrow Roads, 173.
56. W. D. Hamilton, “Selection of Selfish and Altruistic Behaviour in Some
Extreme Models,” in Man and Beast: Comparative Social Behavior, ed. J. F.
Eisenberg and W. S. Dillon (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Press, 1971), 57–91.
57. For Hamilton’s entertaining description of the conference see Narrow Roads,
185–97; quotes on 187, 189. Hamilton’s reply, following his hero Fisher before
him, was eugenics. In the long run the best humans would have to be consciously
selected.
58. Ibid., 173.
59. George Price letter to Bill Hamilton, July 28, 1969, BLGPC, BL:KPX1_4. 4.
The precise correction George alluded to was that in his 1964 paper Hamilton had
failed to state that his kin-selection model only held for an indefinitely large
population where the average relatedness between individuals was zero, whereas
in realistic finite populations that wasn’t quite the case, and it was there that spite
could arise.
60. Hamilton, Narrow Roads, 172–73. Hamilton wrote to a friend at the time that
he hadn’t yet thought deeply about Price’s covariance equation, “apart from
seeing how it provides just the key I was looking for in about 1962 when trying to
get the ideas of social selection into mathematical form as simply as possible.”
But Hamilton sensed nonetheless that the covariance equation “may be something
like the introduction of Fisher’s idea of analysis of variance into statistics.”
Hamilton letter to Colin Hudson, July 26, 1970, GPP.
61. W. D. Hamilton, “Geometry for the Selfish Herd,” Journal of Theoretical
Biology 31 (1971), 295–311; George Price letter to Al Somit, July 20, 1969, GPP;
George Price letter to Aunt Ethel, July 30, 1969, GPP; George Price letter to
Ludwig Luft, July 22, 1969, GPP.
62. George Price letter to Annamarie Price, November 11, 1969, GPP.
63. John Maddox letter to George Price, February 11, 1970, BLWHC,
Z1X102.1.1.2.3; George Price letter to Edison, April 19, 1970, GPP.
64. George Price letter to Ludwig Luft, June 8, 1970, BLGPC, KPX1_1.6; The
paper was revised and sent to Science as “The Nature of Selection” in December
1970 and rejected again. It was published posthumously, through the efforts of
Steven Frank, in the Journal of Theoretical Biology 175 (1995), 389–96; George
even wrote to Shannon on October 16, 1969 (GPP), to ask whether he thought the
covariance equation could be interpreted “in terms of information channel
capacity.”
65. George Price correspondence with Al Somit, March 5, 1969–May 20, 1970,
GPP; interview with Al Somit, April 16, 2008.
CHAPTER 10: “COINCIDENCE” CONVERSION
1. Bill Hamilton letters to George Price, December 5, 1969, January 11, 1970,
BLGPC, BL:KPX1_4.5, and BL:KPX1_4.13.
2. J. H. Morris, assistant editor at Nature, letter to Bill Hamilton, April 10, 1970,
KPX1_10.6.2; W. D. Hamilton, “Selfishness and Spiteful Behaviour in an
Evolutionary Model,” Nature 228 (1970), 1218–20.
3. George Price letter to J. B. Rhine, September 10, 1971, GPP; George Price
letter to Anne Sheffield, December 10, 1970, GPP.
4. George Price letter to Edison Price, October 23, 1970, GPP.
5. George Price letter to Anne Sheffield, December 10, 1970, GPP. In fact Anne
returned to London with her friend Rickie, though George later claimed that she
had written the letter in such a way so as to hint that she’d be alone, a fact that had
gotten him excited, even though she would claim that he had misinterpreted her.
6. George Price letter to Dr. Gilfillan, July 1, 1972, GPP; George Price letter to
Henry Noel, August 11, 1970, GPP.
7. George Price letter to Anne Sheffield, May 27, 1970, GPP.
8. George Price letter to Henry Noel, July 13, 1970, GPP.
9. George Price letter to Dr. Gilfillan, July 1, 1972, GPP; George Price letter to
Anne Sheffield, December 10, 1970.
10. “A History of All Souls Church at Langham Place,” booklet distributed at the
church.
11. George Price letter to Anne Sheffield, December 10, 1970, GPP.
12. George Price diary 1970, GPP.
13. Timothy Dudley-Smith, John Stott: The Making of a Leader (Leicester:
Inter-Varsity Press, 1999). In a November 30, 2004, New York Times editorial,
“Who Is John Stott?,” columnist David Brooks cited Michael Cromartie of the
Ethics and Public Policy Center as saying that “if evangelicals could elect a pope,
Stott is the person they would likely choose.”
14. When Jim Schwartz spoke with the elderly John Stott in December 1999, he
didn’t remember George but said that it was quite possible that he’d forgotten,
and that All Souls “got a lot of kooks.” I thank Jim Schwartz for this information.
15. Class of 1944, Triennial Report, Harvard University Archive (HUA), 273–74;
Class of 1944, Ten Year Report, HUA, 209–10; “Harvard Alumnus Renounces
U.S.,” Boston Traveler, February 17, 1948; “Citizen of the World Detained by
French,” Plainfield Courier-News, November 17, 1948; “News Briefs,” Dallas
Times-Herald, November 18, 1948.
16. Henry Noel letter to George Price, July 7, 1970, GPP.
17. Henry Noel letter to George Price, July 16, 1970, GPP.
18. George Price letter to Henry Noel, July 27, 1970, GPP.
19. Henry Noel letter to George Price, July 16, 1970, GPP.
20. George Price letters to Henry Noel, July 27, August 9, and August 12, 1970,
GPP. Henry didn’t particularly appreciate being lectured by George. “Please be so
good as to lay off for a while,” he wrote to him in November, and the
correspondence broke off temporarily.
21. George Price letter to Anne Sheffield, December 10, 1970, GPP.
22. Ibid.; George Price letter to Julia Price, October 13, 1970, GPP.
23. Ibid.; George Price letter to Henry Noel, August 11, 1970, GPP; George Price
letter to Howard Klevens, December 18, 1970, GPP.
24. Bill Hamilton letter to Edison Price, February 15, 1975, BLWHC,
Z1X102_1.1.20; Bill Hamilton letter to Colin Hudson, July 26, 1970. I thank
Janet Hamilton for sending me this letter.
25. Interview with Janet Hamilton, October 24, 2007.
26. Bill Hamilton letter to George Price, July 2, 1970, BLGPC, BL:KPX1_4.8.
27. George Price letter to Louis J. Vorhous, December 18, 1970, GPP.
28. George Price letter to Caroline Doherety, August 9, 1970, GPP; George Price
letter to Marie Lynch, October 14, 1970, GPP; George Price letter to Al Somit,
October 19, 1970, GPP. Somit was actually not all that surprised by either
development. “I had been expecting the former given the devotedness of your
atheism…. As for the latter development, I had perhaps been prepared for it by the
strength of your expressed anti-Semitism.” Al Somit letter to George Price,
December 2, 1970, GPP.
29. George Price letter to Caroline Doherety, August 9, 1970, GPP.
30. Communication with Kathleen Price, March 8, 2009; “Guest List: Kathy’s
21st Birthday,” GPP.
31. George Price letter to Rosemarie Hudson, August 29, 1970, GPP.
32. George Price letter to Bill Hamilton, September 21, 1970, BLGPC,
BL:KPX1_4.9.
33. Edison Price letter to George Price, September 11, 1970, GPP.
34. Rosemarie Hudson letter to George Price, November 21, 1968, GPP; George
Price letter to Julia Price, October 13, 1970, GPP; George Price letter to Al Somit,
October 19, 1970, GPP; George Price letter to Ludwig Luft, November 4, 1970,
GPP.
35. George Price letter to Rosemarie Hudson, August 29, 1970, GPP; Rosemarie
Hudson letter to George, undated (circa end of August 1970), GPP; George Price
letters to Rosemarie Hudson, October 23 and 25, 1970, GPP.
36. George Price letter to Annamarie and Kathy Price, November 7, 1970, GPP.
37. George Price letter to Kathleen Price, November 30, 1970, GPP.