Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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60 • ALBERTA FIELD FORCE

The economy of Alberta is resource based and dependent on exter-

nal markets. This type of economy exposes Alberta to extreme fluctua-

tions. In the past, the arable soil of Alberta allowed for agriculture to

be the dominant force. This has been supplanted by petroleum, mining,

and manufacturing industries. Alberta has been able to undergo this

change because it has the largest deposits of oil and natural gas in

Canada and more than 70 percent of Canada’s coal supplies. Its Atha-

basca oil (tar) sands, under development and producing oil, are based

on the largest petroleum source in the world other than Saudi Arabia.

Most of the province’s manufacturing industries are tied to the natural

resources and construction industries. The natural beauty of the Rocky

Mountains and the annual Calgary Stampede also provide a boost to

the Alberta economy in the form of tourism. The climate of Alberta is

dry, due to the prevailing winds from the Pacific losing their moisture

on the windward side of the Rockies. The summers are warm and

winters very cold. However, in winter the temperature can rise very

suddenly from a phenomenon known as the chinook.

In 1971, Progressive Conservatives under Peter Lougheed won

the election. Lougheed was succeeded by Ralph Klein, former mayor

of Calgary. On 4 March 2008, the same party won its 11th straight

victory, this time under Edward Stelmach.

The capital of Alberta is Edmonton. The provincial legislative

assembly has 83 members. In the federal parliament, it has 21 MPs

and six senators. The area of the province is 661,190 sq km (6.6

percent of Canada). The flower of the province is the wild rose. The

motto is Fortis et Liber (Strong and Free). The population exceeds

3.6 million. See also ALBERTA FIELD FORCE; BLACKFOOT

CONFEDERACY.

ALBERTA FIELD FORCE. For three months in 1885, a unit of the

Canadian forces known as the Alberta Field Force contributed to the

quelling of the Métis and native rising in the Northwest Territories.

Under the command of Thomas Strange, retired British military en-

gineer turned rancher known as “Gunner Jingo,” the locally raised

force had as its principal mission the policing of native reserves.

The force, which consisted of a motley assortment of cowboys,

bank clerks, townspeople, scouts, and Mounties, traveled north from

Calgary, then into Saskatchewan. They hunted for rebels and were

exploited by settlers along the way. Among their important, though

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ALLIANCES • 61

prosaic duties was effecting the release of 40 hostages held by Big

Bear’s Cree. See also NORTHWEST REBELLION (1885).

ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (EARL OF STIRLING) (1567–1640).

Persuading James I of England to approve a colonization scheme

to create a New Scotland in the New World, Sir William Alexander

received a grant of land with rights to create new baronets for this

purpose. Colonization of Nova Scotia was unsuccessful both because

of the difficulty in inducing settlers to go to the new land and because

of the presence of the Acadians in Acadia. In 1632, as a result of

the peace negotiated between France and England, Port Royal was

returned to the French and the Scottish colony disappeared.

ALLAN, HUGH (1810–1882). Founder of the shipping firm Allan

Line, Sir Hugh Allan was born in Ayrshire, Scotland, and arrived in

Canada in 1826. In 1831, he entered a shipbuilding company, becom-

ing a partner. The Allan Line was established in 1839. In 1852, the

company won a healthy government contract for steamers on the St.

Lawrence River. Its vessels were also contracted for by government

in the Crimean War and first South African War. Allan was also

one of the founders of the Canadian Pacific Railway. In 1872, he

won the contract to build the railway, but his contributions to coffers

of the Conservative Party of John A. Macdonald were exposed

to public scrutiny in what is known as the Pacific Scandal. This

caused the collapse of Macdonald’s government, and the contract

too collapsed. Allan was knighted in 1874 for services to Canadian

commerce. He died in Edinburgh.

ALLIANCES. Since 1867, Canada has had two main alliances: in the

early years with Great Britain and more recently with the United

States. The alliance with the British began with the conquest of New

France in 1759. As a part of the British Empire, Canada was involved

automatically in Britain’s wars. Conflict occurred on Canadian soil

during the American Revolution and the War of 1812. Britain sta-

tioned troops in Canada until 1870–71. Naval bases at Halifax and

Esquimalt were maintained under British direction until the early

1900s. The alliance with Britain involved Canada in the South Afri-

can War (Boer War) and both world wars.

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62 • ALLINE, HENRY

After World War II, Canada’s alliance with Britain became over-

shadowed by the growing alliance between Canada and the United

States. Unlike the familial alliance that Canada had with Britain, the

American alliance was based more on security, trade, and economics.

During World War II, Canada negotiated the Permanent Joint Board

on Defense (PJBD) with the United States to ensure the security of

North America. The PJBD was renewed in 1947. In 1949, Canada

joined the North American Treaty Organization (NATO). Canada

signed the North American Air Defense Agreement with the United

States on 12 May 1958. These were security measures that aimed at

protecting North America from the Soviet Union. Economically, the

United States is Canada’s largest trading partner, and this led to the

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1988. See

also FOREIGN POLICY; NORTH AMERICAN AIR DEFENSE

COMMAND (NORAD).

ALLINE, HENRY (1748–1784). American evangelist Henry Alline

founded the “New Lights” sect, whose members are often called Al-

linites. He was the leader of the Nova Scotia “Great Awakening,” a

religious revival during the American Revolutionary period.

AMERICAN REVOLUTION. One of the most significant develop-

ments in the long history of Canada, and of the Canadian-American

border, is the American Revolution (1775–83). The roots of the

issue date from the Proclamation of 1763, which defined British

land policy for control of settlement west of the Appalachians (and

was thus related to land exploitation and Indian rights) and British

policies of taxation (which American colonists regarded as unjust

and unconstitutional). Other causes of the revolution were the costs

of garrisoning (the Quartering Act of 1765; extended 1774) and

the Stamp Act (1765; repealed 1766). New political theories in the

American colonies rejected the British Crown’s rights of control of

legislation, including taxation measures.

The British government passed the Québec Act of 1774, which

reestablished that province’s western and southwestern commercial

and territorial ambitions into the Ohio country and the Mississippi

watershed. This extension of jurisdiction conflicted with the western

expansion and territorial claims of Virginia, Connecticut, and Mas-

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AMERICAN REVOLUTION • 63

sachusetts. Some American colonists thus classified the act as one

of the “Intolerable Acts.” In September 1774, the First Continental

Congress resolved to declare such British coercive acts as unconstitu-

tional, to urge Massachusetts to take total control of taxation policy,

to push colonial governments to form and arm their own militias, and

to recommend economic sanctions against Great Britain. A plan for

colonial union was subsequently considered; at the Second Conti-

nental Congress (May 1775), Québec was invited to join, the request

speaking of Canadians as “fellow sufferers,” but no representatives

were sent.

In 1775, American armies clashed with British forces. The most

notable instances involving Québec were the capture of Fort Ticon-

deroga on 10 May and Crown Point on 12 May, Brig. Gen. Richard

Montgomery’s expedition against Fort St. Jean (south of Montréal),

which fort capitulated 2 November, and Col. Benedict Arnold’s expe-

dition from Maine to the St. Lawrence River. The officer command-

ing the British troops, Gen. Sir Guy Carleton, withdrew from Mon-

tréal to Québec, leaving it uncovered; American troops then occupied

Montréal 13 November. Arnold’s troops joined with Montgomery’s

forces from Montréal, and launched a combined assault on Québec

31 December; it ended in disaster for American arms: Montgomery

was killed, Arnold wounded, 100 killed or wounded, and 300 taken

prisoner. Carleton lost 11 small river vessels and was himself nearly

captured. The British defense was a stout one; American forces under

Arnold maintained a weak cordon around it for the winter.

American military plans had called for cross-border attacks against

British garrisons and forts. However, British advantages included

well-equipped and disciplined forces, naval power for supply and

resupply, cooperation of Loyalists, and centralized fiscal power and

influence. In 1776, France decided to come to the aid of the Ameri-

can colonists, but the alliance was not effected until 1778.

In the campaign of 1776 in Canada, American Gen. David

Wooster took over command from Arnold then cordoning off Qué-

bec. When British naval resupply arrived in the St. Lawrence and

brought reinforcements to Carleton on 6 May, the American military

leadership decided to abandon the siege of Québec. Carleton turned

the American withdrawal into a rout. American forces suffered

terribly from debilitating diseases, a factor in their poor military

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64 • AMERICAN REVOLUTION

performance. The Americans were defeated at Trois-Rivières 7 June

and fell back on Fort St. Jean and thence to Ticonderoga in early July.

Arnold retreated to Ticonderoga, where preparations were taken to

retain control of Lake Champlain by building a fleet for that purpose.

In the Battle of Valcour Island (11 October 1776), Carleton’s fleet

crippled Arnold’s; two days later, at Split Rock, the American fleet

was destroyed. Carleton then occupied Crown Point, later abandon-

ing it and falling back to the security of Canada.

In 1777, the British force of Loyalists and Indians, 1,800 strong,

advanced from Lake Ontario (Oswego) under Col. Barry St. Leger

and besieged Fort Stanwix on the Mohawk River. Stiff fighting fol-

lowed in the area of northern New York, and late that year Gen. John

Burgoyne’s army collapsed under pressures of British forces led by

Gen. Sir Henry Clinton.

Meanwhile, the thirteen colonies declared independence on 4 July

1776, but already, as noted above, American invasions of Canada

had been mounted. Certain colonies, most notably Massachusetts,

saw the Québec Act as enshrining popery on the banks of the St.

Lawrence. But Massachusetts took no direct action in the invasion

of Canada. Halifax, the guardian of Nova Scotia, was not attacked

in this war.

There was no further fighting on Canadian soil, as the campaigns

intensified in Virginia and North Carolina. Carleton succeeded Clin-

ton as British commander in chief in North America and massed all

British forces at New York. Preliminary articles of peace were signed

30 November 1782; on 4 February 1783, Britain proclaimed a cessa-

tion of hostilities.

As a result of the war, Britain recognized the United States of

America by the first article of the definitive peace treaty, signed

3 September 1783. Because neither Nova Scotia nor Québec had

joined the revolution, they did not join the United States; boundaries

were set up by this treaty from the St. Croix River (dividing Maine

and Nova Scotia), along the 45th degree of latitude west of the St.

Lawrence-Atlantic watershed divide, through the St. Lawrence to

and including the Great Lakes (exclusive of Lake Michigan), and

from Lake Superior to the Mississippi River. The United States held

the right to fish in grounds of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and

was at liberty to dry and cure fish on unsettled shores of Labrador,

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AMERICAN REVOLUTION • 65

the Magdalen Islands, and Nova Scotia. The treaty also included

recognition of debts due creditors of either country, restoration of

rights and property of the Loyalists, and cessation of hostilities and

evacuation of British land and sea forces.

Why did the citizens of the Province of Québec not rise against

the British government, given the promise of the Americans as lib-

erators? For one thing, British military might in the great garrison

of Québec could not be overthrown. For another, the American

invasions of 1775 were not well organized and were fought largely

against professional armies. Equally important, the seigneurs, clergy,

and inhabitants did not seek to overthrow their British “masters.”

They preferred the status quo, did much business with the British

defenders and the American invaders, and had no legitimate reason

to throw off the mantle of the British Empire. The Québec Act, de-

signed to encourage the loyalty and fidelity of the Québecois, had

consequent benefit to the British Empire. Paradoxically, Canada

remained British because its inhabitants were French.

Nova Scotia also rejected revolution. Halifax was a garrison town

and a naval base, and this encouraged wartime business with Britain

and the empire and, further, made American attack unlikely. Many

Nova Scotians (tied to Massachusetts and New York by blood ties)

were sympathetic to the rebels but remained neutral. These “neu-

tral Yankees of Nova Scotia” were caught in the middle—between

sympathy for the American revolutionary cause and neutrality to the

British imperial system at war.

Another result of the American Revolution was the arrival on Brit-

ish soil of various Loyalists. They settled in the St. John River valley,

which in 1784 was proclaimed a separate colony, New Brunswick.

In Québec, they settled along the north coast of the upper St. Law-

rence River and Lakes Ontario and Erie, as far west as Essex County.

In 1791, in consequence, the Province of Upper Canada was estab-

lished, the predominant feature of which was Loyalist political iden-

tity, where freehold land (as opposed to a seigneurial landholding

system) became predominant.

More generally, the remnant of the British Empire in North Amer-

ica—British North America—was forged by the American Revolu-

tion. The event strengthened royal, British imperial, and British ex-

ecutive governmental systems and identities. British North America

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66 • AMERICAN VIETNAM WAR RESISTERS

retained the military structure that was so predominant during and

even before 1776, rejected the concept of revolution, adhered to the

idea of evolution, and provided a counterweight to U.S. tendencies

to secure continental dominion in North America. In short, two coun-

tries were established by the war: the United States and Canada. This

explains the long association of Canadians with imperial sympathies

and colonial identities and latent enthusiasms for Canadian self-

government and independent status in the British Empire and Com-

monwealth. It thus shaped Canadian support for such episodes as the

War of 1812, the South African War, and World Wars I and II.

AMERICAN VIETNAM WAR RESISTERS. Sometimes called

“draft dodgers,” some 50,000 American war resisters and their

companions in the late 1960s and early 1970s arrived in Canada,

mainly Toronto, during the Vietnam War. They brought with them

a rich spirit of resistance, and in Canada they were apt to be more

politicized and likely to embrace activism than has been previously

assumed. Some, in British Columbia, went back to the land, and

some established communes. In Toronto, others created robust com-

munities, including housing cooperatives, communal newspapers and

other voluntary organizations, and small businesses. While facing the

trauma of leaving home, they also had to adjust to a society different

from that of the United States (politically, militarily, diplomatically)

but outwardly similar to it (commercially). Initially welcomed by

civic officials, they found their welcome cooled because of the state

of disorder introduced with their radical anti-war policies. When

in 1972 the war ended and the pressures lessened, the welcome

warmed. In 1977, President Jimmy Carter pardoned draft resisters

and nonregistrants, and an unknown number returned to the United

States to rebuild their lives. Others became Canadian nationals and

citizens, living in-between lives (between indigenous Canadian anti-

Americans and unassimilated itinerants or visitors who never put

down roots). Many never adopted Canada as their own, preferring

their own unique suspended lives in time and protected space.

AMHERST, JEFFREY (1717–1797). British commander at the suc-

cessful siege of Louisbourg in 1758, Lord Jeffrey Amherst was com-

mander in chief in America during the Seven Years War (1756–63).

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ANNEXATION MANIFESTO • 67

He commanded a large army that descended from Lake Ontario to

Montréal in August and early September 1760, and he signed, for

the British, the Articles of Surrender of Montréal (the Marquis de

Vaudreuil signed for the French). As military commander of Canada

after the French cession of New France, he put in place reforms in

Indian administration that, though driven by imperial policies of fis-

cal economy, represented his understanding that conquerors held full

powers over natives who had backed the failed French war cause.

British Indian agents called a great council at Detroit in 1761, the

intention to promote peace and build a new alliance in the western

interior. But Amherst determined to eliminate all gifts that served

as tokens of friendship. Guaranteeing Indians their lands free from

encroachments by settlers was part of Amherst’s policy, but this

would not suffice to keep peace and promote the alliance with the

Indians. Pontiac’s War of rebellion (1763) was widespread and dif-

ficult to contain; it is seen as a demonstration of British failure and of

Amherst’s misguided policy. Afterward the alliance had to be rebuilt

anew, old French posts reoccupied, British garrisons established at

key fur posts such as Detroit and Michilimackinac, trade gifts made

more generous, and trade goods (guns, ammunition, knives, rum, to-

bacco) made more available. Pontiac survived in history and legend

but Amherst’s image has tarnished with the years. Amherst was suc-

ceeded in Canada by Gen. Thomas Gage.

ANNEXATION MANIFESTO. Signed in 1848, this document called

for Canada’s annexation to the United States as being preferable to

the proposed union of the British North American colonies. The sig-

natories included Alexander Tilloch Galt, Louis-Joseph Papineau,

and a number of Montréal and Québec businessmen. The economic

and financial causes of this unsuccessful quest were many. Principal

among them was the end of colonial preference in the British markets

for Canadian wheat, timber, and flour products. Canadian trading

was disadvantaged by free trade with Great Britain. The annexation-

ists argued that union with the United States would raise farm prices,

lower import costs, and attract U.S. capital for Canadian industry.

But French Canadians were thoroughly opposed, and the American

government showed no interest. The movement, largely republican

in sympathy, encountered strong political opposition by the British

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68 • ANTIGONISH MOVEMENT

American League and followers of Louis Hippolyte Lafontaine.

It died out in 1854, when the Reciprocity Treaty allowed free trade

with the United States in products of farm, forest, and waters. See

also RECIPROCITY.

ANTIGONISH MOVEMENT. Founded in the 1920s by Father

Jimmy Tompkins and his cousin Dr. Moses Coady of St. Frances

Xavier University, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, this movement en-

couraged cooperatives and formed the United Maritime Fishermen,

based in Moncton. The Antigonish Movement aimed at solving credit

problems and ending economic distress in maritime communities.

Notions of cooperatives pioneered in Nova Scotia have become fa-

miliar around the world.

ANTI-TERRORISM ACT. Introduced by the Liberal government

in the wake of the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the United

States, the Anti-Terrorism Act (ATA) received royal assent 8 De-

cember 2001. According to the Canadian Department of Justice, the

act “tak es aim at terrorist organizations and assists the Government

of Canada to meet the extraordinary challenges presented by terror-

ism. The legislation is intended to protect the safety, security and

fundamental rights of Canadians. It contains numerous safeguards,

which include an important requirement that Parliament compre-

hensively review the provisions and operation of the ATA after three

years.” Despite its apparent uses, the ATA has been seen to violate

the nature of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. In Octo-

ber 2006, an Ontario judge struck down sections of the act because

of its associations between ideologies and motives.

ARCHITECTURE. The earliest architecture of Canada can be said to

be aboriginal dwellings, and noteworthy in this regard are the long

houses of the Iroquois, Huron, and other eastern tribes; the tents of

the plains tribes; and the cedar structures of the Northwest Coast peo-

ples. Entirely made of local, natural materials, they were dwellings

largely of impermanence and subject to the migratory patterns of the

tribes and bands. The first European dwelling in the area now known

as Canada was the house-storehouse-fortification that Champlain

erected at Québec: called the Habitation, it was more than a place

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ARCHITECTURE • 69

of dwelling. The construction of military installations contributed

to the architectural features of Canada, most notably in stone forts,

redoubts, Martello towers, and barracks. Many of these are to be seen

in Halifax, Kingston, and Esquimalt. The British government, espe-

cially the War Department, Royal Engineers, and Admiralty, made

many notable additions to Canadian architecture, providing funding

and architectural/engineering standards. During the French era, the

military architect Vauban designed fortifications of New France. Of

equal importance to the architectural record is the role of the Roman

Catholic Church in the construction of basilica and parish churches,

many of which survive in the Province of Québec. Many of these will

be seen in Québec City, on the shores of the St. Lawrence River, in

Montréal, and elsewhere. They speak to deep-seated religious tradi-

tions, French imperial purposes in the new world through Christian-

ity, and domestic adoption (and expansion) of Roman Catholicism.

Domestic architecture survives from the 18th century, and many

fine examples are to be found in Rue St. Paul, lower Montréal, for

instance. The Georgian and Victorian ages gave many distinguished

architectural examples to Canada. In Upper Canada are examples of

Classical Revival, or Federalist style, common in the United States.

Loyalists and late Loyalists coming to Upper Canada brought their

architectural tastes with them. The Gothic styles so popular in Great

Britain saw expression in Canadian building: for example, the East

Block of the Parliament Buildings, Ottawa, and certain buildings

of the University of Toronto. Neoclassical motifs remained predomi-

nant in city and town architecture; this is notable in Kingston’s civic

buildings, and in the parliament buildings, for instance, of Saskatch-

ewan and British Columbia. Gothic influences are to be found in

Protestant church architecture, notably of the Anglican Church of

Canada. Examples of this include St. John the Evangelist, Elora,

Ontario, and in the form of “carpenter gothic” St. Luke’s Church,

Victoria, British Columbia. Churches naturally reflected metropoli-

tan preferences in Great Britain.

It may be noted that banks recognized the value of an architectural

image that would attract customers. In consequence, bank buildings

are some of the heritage pieces of Canadian architecture. The own-

ers and managers of banks wished to display symbols of wealth,

integrity, endurance, and confidence; thus, they turned to Greek and

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