Fahim M.A., Sahhaf T.A., Elkilani A.S. Fundamentals of Petroleum Refining
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d Solubility parameter
e
g
Hydrocarbon gases void fraction
f Catalyst activity
m Average failure rate
y Residence time
r
L
Liquid density
r
v
Vapour density
s
y
Standard deviation in y-direction
s
z
Standard deviation in z-direction
s Surface tension
u100 Kinematic viscosity (cSt) at 100
F
u210 Kinematic viscosity (cSt) at 210
F
o Acentric factor
492 Notation
INDE X
Note: Page numbers followed by ‘‘f ’’ and ‘‘t ’’ indicate figures and tables, respectively.
A
Acid gas, 377–402
carbonate, 388–389, 389f
chemical solvent, 379–392
direct oxidation, 397f
MEA process, 379
membrane, 392
MEROX, 397, 400
Morphysorb, 391–392, 391f
physical solvent, 389–392
removal, 377–402
Selexol, 390–391
tail gas clean up (TGCU), 397
Air pollution models, 437–438
gas dispersion, 437–438
Alkylation, 263–284
acid strength, 273
Alkyclean, 268–269
catalysts, 263–264, 267–268
hydrofluoric acid, 267
kinetics, 269–275
material balance, 277–279, 279t
olefin type, 272
operating conditions, 272–275
performance, 275–277
processes, 263–269, 275–277, 279–282
products, 268–269, 272
reactions, 268–269, 270–272, 277
solid catalyst, 267–268
sulphuric acid, 263–266, 271–272
UNISIM, 279–282
yields, 275, 276, 278
Aniline point, 25–26, 245
API gravity, 24–25, 35
Aquaconversion, 348–353, 352t
ARDS, 169, 170t, 176
ASTM distillation, 24, 35, 36–40
Atmospheric distillation, 69, 70f, 81–82
Aviation turbine kerosene (ATK), 1, 192–194
B
Blending, 237–262
aniline point, 245
cloud point, 244
flash point, 240–242
octane number, 248–253
pour point, 242–243
reid vapour pressure, 238–240
smoke point, 26, 30t, 246
specific gravity, 246–247
viscosity, 247–248
Boiling points, 23–24, 83t
distillation fraction, 36
IBP, 36
EBP, 36
NBP, 36
Butane, 263
iso-, 263
normal, 21
butene, 269
butylenes (see butene)
C
Carbon residue, 28
conradson carbon, 28, 201
Cash flow diagram, 410, 412f
Catalytic cracking, 199–236
Catalytic reforming, 95–122
CCR platforming, 106–107f
correlation, 106, 108t
operating conditions, 108t,
120t
semi regenerative, 102, 103f
UNISIM, 112–118
Cetane, 26, 30t
Claus process, 393–397
catalysts, 395
direct oxidation, 397f
Clean Fuels, 303–324
biological, 317–322
deep desulphurization, 305–310
deep non hydrodesulphurization, 310–313
natural gas, 313
production, 305
specifications, 303–305
synthesis gas, 315–317
Coke, 123–125
Electrode, 137, 138t
Fuel, 137, 142
Shot, 137
493
Coke (Continued)
Sponge, 137
Uses, 137, 138t
Coking, 123–152
coke removal, 138
delayed, 133–144, 138t
Flexicoking, 147–150, 148f
Fluid, 144–146, 145f
UNISIM, 142–144
Yields, 128, 136–137, 140–142
Cracking, 153–198
Hydrocracking, 180
Hydrotreating, 153
Isomerization, 118
Methanation, 298–299
Reforming, 106
shift conversion, 296
steam reforming, 286–295
Cracking thermal (see Visbreaking)
Critical properties, 62t
acentric factor, 53
pressure, 53
temperature, 53
Crude assay, 6–8
Crude distillation, 1, 2t, 33, 69–94
operating variables, 79–80
process description, 69–72, 81–82
Crude oils, 33–68
Classifications, 24t
Composition, 50–52, 83
distillation curves, 37t,42f
metals content, 80–81
nitrogen content, 12t
properties, 33–68
salt content, 76
sulphur content, 16, 86–88
D
Deasphalting, 327–333
DAO, 327, 332t
ROSE process, 328, 329f
SDA, 327
Delayed coking, 133–144
Correlation, 140–142
operating conditions, 138t
process description, 131–133
Desalting, 70, 76–80
Desulphurization, 308
bio-, 312
conventional, 308–309
deep hydrodesulphurization, 308
deep non hydrodesulphurization,
310–313
extraction, 311
membrane, 312
oxidation, 311
selective adsorption, 310
Dewaxing, 190–192
Discounted cash flow, 415–416
Distillation ASTM, 24
atmospheric, 69, 70f, 81–82
true boiling point, 23–24
vacuum, 29, 80–82
E
Economic Evaluation, 416–418
capital cost, 404
complexity, 409
depreciation, 416
discounted cash flow, 415–416
margins, 408
operating cost, 405
profitability, 414
project evaluation, 414–418
rate of return, 405, 416
working capital, 416, 417
Elemental analysis, 27
aromatic, 29
hydrocarbon, 29
Emissions, 424, 428–438
air pollutants, 429t
monitoring, 444
water, 445–451
solid waste, 424t, 452–453, 453t
Environment, 423–456
control, 426t, 439–444
flare, 431–433, 432t
fugitive emission, 427, 435–437
particulate, 425, 426t, 442–444
sludge, 452
stack, 424, 427, 431–433
tank, 435t, 433–435
treatment, 439–444, 442f, 443f, 448–451
waste minimization, 427, 445
prevention, 427, 445
Explosive limit, 363–364
F
Flash
point, 22,
26, 240–242
Flexicoking, 147–150
correlation, 147–150
process description, 147
Flow sheet refinery, 4–9
Fluid catalytic cracking, 199–238
catalyst, 208–209
FCC (see fluid catalytic cracking)
flue gas, 210–211
fluidization, 203f
kinetics, 219–222
material and energy balance, 216–219
orthoflow, 209–210
Petro FCC, 231
process description, 210–212
reactions, 202–206
494 Index
Fluid catalytic cracking (Continued)
regeneration, 211, 217–218
RFCC, 338–340
riser, 199, 209–210, 212, 222–226
side by side, 209–210
spent catalyst, 210–211, 217
stacked, 209–210
UNISIM, 227–230
yield correlation, 212–215
zeolite, 208
Freezing point, 25
Fuels, 6
aviation, 1, 192–194
blending, 237–262
diesel, 22, 304t, 320t
distillate, 69
gasoline, 13, 26, 248
heating, 22
LPG (see liquified petroleum gas)
motor, 248–253
G
Gas, 21
liquified petroleum, 21
processing, 439t
purification, 316f
Gasoline, 21–22
alkylate, 263, 278
blending, 248–253
specifications, 304t
H
Hydroconversion, 153
Hydrocracking, 99, 180–196
ATK, 192–194
catalyst, 182
configuration, 188–189
correlation, 192–194
reactions, 180–182
severity, 189–190, 192
thermodynamics and kinetics, 185–186
UNISIM, 194–196
yield, 192, 192t
Hydrogen, 285–302
amine process, 297–298
consumption, 285
CO removal, 297
conversion, 285
HTSC, 286, 296
LTSC, 286, 297
manufacture, 300–301
methanation, 298–299
operating variables, 293–294
pressure swing adsorption,
299–300
process description, 286–288
production, 285–302
purification, 296–300
steam reforming, 286–295
sulphur adsorption, 285–288
thermodynamics, 289–292
UNISIM, 294–296
Hydrotreating, 153–179, 154t, 285
ARDS, 153, 167–169, 176–179
catalysts, 153–154, 157–158
feed preparation, 288
feedstocks, 172t
hydrogen consumption, 172t, 285
kinetics, 162–164
middle distillate, 166, 175–176
naphtha, 164–165
objective, 153
reactions, 155–157, 158–160, 159t
simulation, 176–179
thermodynamics, 158–169
yields, 166, 167t
Hydrogen sulphide, 164, 377–379
I
Iso-butane, 263, 328f
Isomerization, 95–122, 121t
catalysts, 119–120
operating conditions, 118
yields, 120–121
J
Jet fuel, 22
K
K-factor, 47–48
L
Light cycle gas oil (LCGO), 211
Light cycle oil (LCO), 202t
Linear programming (LP),
254–259
Liquified petroleum gas (LPG), 21
Low BTU gas (LBG), 147
M
Mercaptans, 377–402
Metal content, 28
Methanation, 298–299
Molecular weight, 27, 48–49
N
Naphtha, 74, 171
Naphthenes, 14
Nitrogen, 18–19
Index 495
O
Octane number, 248–253
blending, 238t
motor, 248
research, 248
Olefins, 13–14
P
Paraffins, 12–13
Physical solvent, 389
Plant location, 370–371
Pollution, 423–427
air, 429t
noise, 374–375
soil, 452–453
water, 445–451
Pour point, 25, 242–243
Products, 6
diesel, 22
gasoline, 21–22
jet fuel, 22
LPG, 21
refinery, 20
Pseudo component, 40–48
specific gravity, 47–48
TBP, 41–46
R
Reforming catalytic, 95–122
catalysts, 99, 102
correlation, 108t
feed preparation, 96
feedstocks, 96f
processes, 95
products, 96f
reactions, 96f, 98–100
reformate, 96f
Refractive index, 25, 30t, 49–50
Reid vapor pressure, 27, 30t, 238–240
Research octane number, 248
Return rate, 415–416
S
Safety, 357–376
alarm, 374
desalting, 357
fault tree, 366–368
fire and explosion, 363–364
HAZOP, 365
noise, 374
plant layout, 370–371
relief system, 372
relief valve, 372
risk management, 360–363
Salt content, 27, 76
SARA analysis, 29–30
Shift conversion, 296–297
Solvent deasphalting, 327–333
Solvent extraction, 426
Sour water stripping, 450f
Steam systems, 315–317
Sulphur recovery, 393–397
Claus processes, 393–397
direct oxidation, 397f
tail gas cleanup, 397
Sulphuric acid, 274f
Sweetening, 379
T
Tail gas clean up (TGCU), 397
Thermal process, 4, 333–338
delayed coker, 140–142, 325
flexicoking, 147–150, 149f
fluidized bed, 147
gasification, 333–338
visbreaking, 131–132, 131f, 327t
Thermophysical properties, 48–53
enthalpy, 55–58
generalized equation, 54–55
molecular type composition, 50–52
phase change, 58–59
pseudo critical, 52–53
Treating process, 379–380
acid gas, 377–402
hydrogen, 172t
U
Upgrading, 327–338, 343f
aquaconversion, 348–353
coking, 332
deasphalting, 327–333
gasification, 333–338
hydroprocessing, 342–348, 343f
residue FCC, 338–340
V
Vacuum distillation, 81f
Vapor pressure, 238–240
Visbreaking, 126–133, 327t
coil, 131–132
soaker, 132–133
Viscosity, 49
index, 247
kinematic, 34
W
Waste water treatment, 446t, 449
Watson characterization factor, 39
Waste in refinery units, 423–426
496 Index