Дахно І.І. Право Європейського Союзу: Англо-Українсько-Російський Глосарій
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131
tional level thus hel
p
in
g
to maintain
p
eace an
d
international securit
y
, in
accordance with the
United Nations Charter.
The ESDP, which does
not involve the creation
of a Euro
p
ean arm
y
, is
develo
p
in
g
in a manne
r
that is com
p
atible an
d
coordinated with NATO.
With the entr
y
into force
of the Treaty of Amster-
dam, new tasks have
b
een included in the
Treaty on European Un-
ion (Title V). This im-
portant innovation relates
to humanitarian and res-
cue operations, peace-
kee
p
in
g
o
p
erations an
d
the use of combat forces
in crisis management, in-
cluding peacemaking op-
erations
(
known as the
«Petersber
g
tasks»
)
. In
addition to these civilian
and military crisis man-
a
g
ement o
p
erations, the
ESDP includes a conflict
prevention component.
The Political and Secu-
rit
y
Committee
(
PSC
)
,
the EU Military Com-
mittee
(
EUMC
)
and EU
Militar
y
Staff
(
EUMS
)
are the permanent politi-
cal and military struc-
tures res
p
onsible for an
autonomous, o
p
erational
EU defence
p
olic
y
. The
Helsinki Euro
p
ean
Council established the
«
g
lobal ob
j
ective», in
other words that the Un-
ion must be able to de-
ploy, up to 60 000 per-
sons within 60 da
y
s an
d
for at least one year.
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Europol (European
Police
Office)
Euro
p
ol is referred to in
Article 29 of the Treat
y
of Amsterdam, as a
means of providing citi-
zens with a hi
g
h level of
safet
y
within an area of
freedom, securit
y
an
d
justice.
The idea of a Euro
p
ean
Police Office was firs
t
raised at the Luxem-
b
our
g
Euro
p
ean Council
on 28 and 29 June 1991.
The
p
lan then was to se
t
u
p
a new bod
y
which
would provide a struc-
ture for developing po-
lice cooperation between
Member States in pre-
ventin
g
and combatin
g
serious forms of interna-
tional or
g
anised crime.
Provision for the Office
was made in the Treat
y
of Maastricht, and it be-
g
an its activities on 3
January 1994 as the Eu-
ropol Drugs Unit (EDU).
This initially confined its
efforts to the fi
g
h
t
a
g
ainst dru
g
s, but its
terms of reference were
g
raduall
y
extended to
other serious crimes.
The Convention estab-
lishin
g
Euro
p
ol was
si
g
ned in Jul
y
1995 an
d
entered into force on 1
October 1998, but only
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133
b
ecame full
y
o
p
erational
on 1 Jul
y
1999. Euro
p
ol
took over the activities of
the EDU, for exam
p
le in
the areas of drug traf-
ficking, clandestine im-
migration networks, traf-
fickin
g
in stolen
vehicles, traffickin
g
in
human bein
g
s
(
includin
g
child
p
orno
g
ra
p
h
y)
,
counterfeitin
g
currenc
y
and falsification of othe
r
means of payment, traf-
fickin
g
in radioactive
and nuclear substances,
terrorism and money-
laundering.
The Treaty of Amster-
dam conferred a numbe
r
of different tasks on Eu-
ro
p
ol: coordinatin
g
an
d
im
p
lementin
g
s
p
ecific
investi
g
ations conducte
d
by
the Member States’
authorities, develo
p
in
g
s
p
ecialised ex
p
ertise in
order to hel
p
Membe
r
States in their investiga-
tions into or
g
anise
d
crime, and establishin
g
contacts with prosecutors
and investi
g
ators who
s
p
ecialise in the fi
g
h
t
against organised crime.
Europol’s role was en-
hanced in Decembe
r
2001 when its remit was
extended to all forms of
international crime as de-
fined in the annex to the
Euro
p
ol Convention.
Two more fundamental
su
gg
estions were also
made, concernin
g
the
possibility of giving Eu-
ro
p
ol
g
enuine
p
owers of
investi
g
ation and wa
y
s
of exercisin
g
democratic
control over the Office.
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fort letter
See Comfort letter
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Export duties
Customs duties an
d
char
g
es havin
g
an effec
t
e
q
uivalent to customs
duties
p
a
y
able on the
exportation of goods.
A
g
ricultural levies an
d
other ex
p
ort char
g
es
introduced under the
common a
g
ricultural
p
olic
y
or under the
s
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ecific arran
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External responsibili-
ties of the European
Community
The European Commu-
nity’s external responsi-
bilities are defined in ac-
cordance with whethe
r
they are conferred on the
Communit
y
or on the
Member States. They are
described as «exclusive»
where the
y
are exercise
d
entirely by the Community
(e.g. the common agricul-
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135
tural
p
olic
y)
and «mixed
»
where they are shared with
the Member States (e.g. the
transport policy).
The distinction has been
defined in Court of Jus-
tice case law and is
b
ased on the
p
rinci
p
le of
im
p
licit res
p
onsibilit
y
,
whereby external respon-
sibilit
y
derives from the
existence of internal re-
s
p
onsibilit
y
. The Treat
y
confers explicit respon-
sibility in only two cases:
commercial policy (Arti-
cle 133, formerly Article
113
)
and association
a
g
reements
(
Article 310,
formerly Article 238).
It should be
p
ointed ou
t
that the common forei
g
n
and securit
y
p
olic
y
comes under the heading
of the EU’s external re-
lations, which are gov-
erned by intergovern-
mental procedures (se-
cond
p
illar
)
, rather than
under the external re-
s
p
onsibilities of the
European Community.
The growth in the Com-
munit
y
’s activities
(
e.
g
.
the completion of the sin-
gle market), developments
in world trade and the less
clear-cut case law have
made the exercise of ex-
ternal powers more prob-
lematic, while at the same
time entailing a far-rea-
ching duty to cooperate and
coordinate in the name of
a united front in interna-
tional representation.
To enable the Community
to ada
p
t to the radical
chan
g
es in the structures
of the world econom
y
and reflect the wide re-
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136
sponsibilities given to the
World Trade Organisa-
tion, the Treaty of Am-
sterdam has amended Ar-
ticle 133 of the EC Treaty
to allow the Council,
actin
g
unanimousl
y
, to
b
roaden the sco
p
e of the
common commercial
policy to cover interna-
tional ne
g
otiations an
d
a
g
reements on services
and intellectual property.
’
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).
Exhaustion
Intellectual property rights
(
IPRs
)
such as
p
atents
and trademarks
g
ive the
developer certain exclu-
sive rights over the ex-
p
loitation of his work,
such as in production and
commerce. However,
within the EU, the exclu-
sive ri
g
ht cannot be use
d
to artificiall
y
s
p
lit u
p
the
common market alon
g
national borders. There-
fore, the holder of an IPR
in a Member State can-
not o
pp
ose the im
p
ort of
a
p
roduct
p
rotected b
y
the IPR into that Member
State, where that product
was alread
y
p
ut on the
market in another Mem-
ber State by the holder or
with his consent. To this
extent the holder’s IPR is
considered to be ex-
hausted. The principle of
exhaustion does not ap-
ply with regard to prod-
ucts
p
ut on the market in
third countries. Intellec-
tual property right
*
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137
First pillar
See Community and in-
tergovernmental methods
>+ >
Foreclosure
Strate
g
ic behaviour b
y
a
firm or
g
rou
p
of firms to
restrict market access
p
ossibilities of
p
otential
competitors either up-
stream or downstream.
Foreclosure can take dif-
ferent forms, from abso-
lute refusal to deal to
more subtle forms of dis-
crimination such as the
degradation of the qual-
it
y
of access. A fir
m
may, for example, pre-
em
p
t im
p
ortant sources
of raw material su
pp
l
y
and/or distribution chan-
nels throu
g
h exclusivit
y
contracts, thereby caus-
in
g
a foreclosure of
competitors.
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Free riding
Free ridin
g
occurs when
one firm
(
or individual
)
b
enefits from the actions
and efforts of another
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138
without
p
a
y
in
g
for o
r
sharing the costs. For ex-
am
p
le, a retail store ma
y
initiall
y
choose to incu
r
costs of trainin
g
its staff
to demonstrate to poten-
tial customers how a
particular kitchen appli-
ance works, in order to
expand its sales. How-
ever, the customers ma
y
later choose to bu
y
the
product from another
retailer who is able to
sell it at a lower price be-
cause his business strat-
egy is to do without such
training and demonstra-
tion, thus avoidin
g
the
costs involved. This sec-
ond retailer is thus
viewed as «free-ridin
g
»
on the efforts and costs
incurred by the first re-
tailer, who will lose the
incentive to continue
demonstrating the prod-
uct.
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139
Geneticall
y
modified
organisms (GMOs)
GMOs are or
g
anisms
whose
g
enetic material
(
DNA
)
has been altere
d
not b
y
re
p
roduction
and/or natural recombi-
nation but by the intro-
duction of a modifie
d
gene or a gene from an-
other variety or species.
There has been Commu-
nity legislation on GMOs
since the earl
y
1990s.
EU action is desi
g
ned to
protect human health and
the environment while
following the rules of the
single market. The Union
has legislated on the use,
dissemination, marketing
and traceabilit
y
of
GMOs. It has also
adopted measures to im-
p
lement the
p
rovisions
on transboundary move-
ments of GMOs lai
d
down in the Carta
g
ena
Protocol on Biosafety.
The European Commis-
sion is questioning the de
facto moratorium on the
marketing and produc-
tion of GMOs within the
Union, introduced in
-
GMOs
,
$ $ -
(
DNA
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G
g
140
1999 b
y
the Membe
r
States. It is examinin
g
the possibility of author-
isin
g
GMOs once a
g
ain,
while takin
g
account of
the precautionary princi-
ple, in order not to pe-
nalise European industry,
agriculture and research.
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GMOs
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.
Globalisation
of the economy
The phenomenon of eco-
nomic
g
lobalisation was
identified b
y
the Turin
European Council as one
of the ma
j
or challen
g
es
facin
g
the Euro
p
ean
Union at the end of the
20th centur
y
. The ter
m
refers to a
p
rocess of
growing economic inte-
g
ration worldwide, an
d
the main drivin
g
forces
behind it are:
x the liberalisation of
international trade an
d
capital movements;
x accelerating techno-
lo
g
ical
p
ro
g
ress and the
advent of the information
society;
x deregulation.
These three factors ac-
centuate each other:
technolo
g
ical
p
ro
g
ress
stimulates international
trade and worldwide
p
atterns of trade allow
for more effective dis-
semination of techno-
logical progress. At the
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