Dacko S.G. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing Putting Theory to Use
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intertemporal substitution 280
internet-centric marketing see online marketing
internet marketing see online marketing
intertemporal substitution
DESCRIPTION
The extent to which similar goods offered at different times can take the place
of each other.
KEY INSIGHTS
Products or services may be characterized by varying intertemporal sub-
stitutability among consumers. In the case of air fares to a travel desti-
nation being higher on weekdays and lower on weekends, for example,
intertemporal substitutability is lower for a consumer flying to a business
meeting than for a leisure traveler. High intertemporal substitutability
for a product or service may thus lead consumers to delay purchase or
consumption of an offering to a time that is more favorable, such as
where travel to the same destination can be made off-peak at a lower
price.
KEY WORDS Time, substitutability
IMPLICATIONS
When a product or service is offered to consumers at an array of times,
marketers should seek to understand how and to what extent such
offerings are intertemporally substitutable among consumers in order to
explain and predict consumer demand to a greater extent. Such know-
ledge can have important implications for price setting involving services
that vary regularly in both supply and demand, for example, as when
daily train commuters with little time flexibility are more resigned to
paying higher fares on weekday mornings.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Consumer Behavior
Winer, Russell S. (1997). ‘Discounting and its Impact on Durables Buying Deci-
sions,’ Marketing Letters, 8(1), 109–118.
Marketing Research
Hartmann, Wesley R. (2006). ‘Intertemporal Effects of Consumption and their
Implications for Demand Elasticity Estimates,’ Quantitative Marketing and Eco-
nomics, 4(4), December, 325–349.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hendel, I., and Nevo, A. (2004). ‘Intertemporal Substitution and Storable Products,’
Journal of European Economic Association, 2(2–3), 536–547.
interval scale see scale
introduction stage see product life cycle
281 intrusive marketing
intrusive marketing
DESCRIPTION
Exposing consumers to marketing without their permission or invitation.
KEY INSIGHTS
Intrusive marketing may involve any number of specific marketing
approaches which are aimed at current or prospective consumers with-
out their consent and which may be perceived by a consumer as an
invasion of privacy. Outbound telemarketing is intrusive as it encroaches
on an individual’s privacy when it involves calling a consumer at his
or her residence and where the consumer must listen at least for a
moment to the caller’s message. Free newspapers delivered to one’s door
are intrusive as the consumer must inevitably pick them up to read or
toss. In out-of-home marketing, intrusive marketing may take the form
of flat panel television screens running a series of advertisements that a
consumer cannot help but watch while standing in line at a shop waiting
for service.
KEY WORDS Uninvited marketing, unwelcome communication
IMPLICATIONS
Intrusive marketing’s aim is to get in the way of the consumer so as
to capture the consumer’s attention. In some cases, approaches may
involve forms of direct marketing (see direct marketing) or out-of-home
marketing where marketing messages, either through sight or sound,
are displayed or broadcast in places that consumers happen to be and
where they cannot help but be exposed to them. In many instances,
such marketing communications may be unwelcome to a consumer but
the consumer may nevertheless tolerate it. Marketers seeking to reach
consumers through an intrusive marketing approach must therefore give
consideration to how such communications may be received by the target
audience, lest they become turned off or tuned out prematurely to the
marketer’s message. On a larger scale, marketers must be concerned
about the possibility of a consumer backlash against a particular intrusive
marketing approach.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Rowe, W. G., and Barnes, J. G. (1998). ‘Relationship Marketing and Sustained
Competitive Advantage,’ Journal of Market Focused Management, 2(3), 281–292.
Marketing Management
Hackley, C. E., and Kitchen, P. J. (1999). ‘Ethical Perspectives on the Postmodern
Communications Leviathan,’ Journal of Business Ethics, 20(1), 15–26.
Cohn, E., and Zengerle, J. (1997). ‘Devil in the Details,’ American Prospect, 35, 14–17.
Marketing Research
Day, G. S., and Montgomery, D. B. (1999). ‘Charting New Directions for Marketing,’
Journal of Marketing, 63(1), 3–13.
Mobile Marketing
Unni, R., and Harmon, R. (2003). ‘Location-Based Services: Models for Strategy
Development in M-Commerce,’ in Proceedings of the Portland International Conference
on Management of Engineering and Technology (PICMET’03), 416–424.
isolation effect 282
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brown, D. J., and Browne, B. A. (1998). ‘Vulnerability and Attitudes toward Intrusive
Marketing,’ Psychological Reports, 83(33), 1348–1350.
isolation effect
DESCRIPTION
A tendency in individual evaluations of alternatives where an individual
generally disregards components that the alternatives share and focuses on
the components that distinguish them.
KEY INSIGHTS
Based on pioneering research by Tversky (1972) and Kahneman and
Tversky (1979), the isolation effect is a phenomenon that stems from
people’s need or desire to simplify the choice between alternatives. Such
an approach to choice problems may, however, result in inconsistent
preferences to the extent that alternatives are able to be decomposed
into common and distinctive components in more than one way, with
different decompositions thereby leading to potentially different prefer-
ences.
NOTE
The isolation effect as described here should not be confused with the
Restorff effect or von Restorff effect, which is also referred to as the
isolation effect. (See von Restorff effect.)
KEY WORDS Alternative evaluation, choice
IMPLICATIONS
Whether marketer or consumer, individuals evaluating alternatives are
prone to the isolation effect. As a result, there is potential for bias in
evaluations of alternatives where individuals tend to overly focus on
features that differentiate alternatives and under-focus on features that
the alternatives share, even if the shared features have an important
influence on the desirability of, or satisfaction with, the outcome associ-
ated with the evaluation. Consumers evaluating risk in financial products
may, for example, not give sufficient attention to the degree of risk that
is common to all alternatives examined, instead overly focusing on dif-
ferentiating features. Marketers concerned with alternative evaluations
should therefore be aware of potential biasing tendencies and strive to
provide greater attention to important features shared by all alterna-
tives. Similarly, marketers seeking to understand better how consumers
evaluate alternatives should be aware of such tendencies in consumer
behavior. Such tendencies in alternative evaluations may, for example,
lead to consumers considering two similar products to view one product
more favorably if it is placed next to a more expensive alternative.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Tellis, Gerard J. (1986). ‘Beyond the Many Faces of Price: An Integration of Pricing
Strategies,’ Journal of Marketing, 50(4), October, 146–160.
283 item response theory
Consumer Behavior
Byrne, K. (2005). ‘How do Consumers Evaluate Risk in Financial Products?’ Journal
of Financial Services Marketing, 10(1), 21–36.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kahneman, Daniel, and Tversky, Amos (1979). ‘Prospect Theory: An Analysis of
Decision under Risk,’ Econometrica, 47, 263–292.
Tversky, Amos (1972). ‘Elimination by Aspects: A Theory of Choice,’ Psychological
Review, 79, 281–299.
item response theory
(also called latent trait theory)
DESCRIPTION
A theoretical approach to the scaling of items and persons based on responses
to items contained within assessments or other related data collection instru-
ments.
KEY INSIGHTS
An item response theory-based approach to measurement and analysis
is based on the assumption that the probabilities of responses to items
are joint functions of individual characteristics as well as other items. A
benefit of the approach is that it not only facilitates the development of
formal data collection instruments but allows more systematic compar-
isons of results over successive occasions of use.
KEY WORDS Measurement, response, items
IMPLICATIONS
Item response theory provides a basis for the development and evaluation
of a range of data collection instruments including surveys and tests.
The theory enables marketing scales to be developed and appropriately
interpreted as well.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Research
Singh, Jagdip, Howell, Roy D., and Rhoads, Gary K. (1990). ‘Adaptive Designs for
Likert-Type Data: An Approach for Implementing Marketing Surveys,’ Journal of
Marketing Research, 27(3), August, 304–321.
Salzberger, T., Sinkovics, R. R., and Schlegelmilch, B. B. (1999). ‘Data Equivalence in
Cross-Cultural Research: A Comparison of Classical Test Theory and Latent Trait
Theory Based Approaches,’ Australasian Marketing Journal, 7(2), 23–38.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sijtsma, Klaas, and Molenaar, Ivo W. (2002). Introduction to Non-parametric Item
Response Theory. London: Sage Publications.
DeVellis, R. F. (2003). ‘Scale Development Theory and Applications Second Edition,’
Applied Social Research Methods Series, 26(2).
Lord, F. M. (1980). Applications of Item Response Theory to Practical Testing Problems.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
J
JND see Weber–Fechner law
job characteristics theory
DESCRIPTION
Theory relating job design to work motivation, satisfaction, and performance.
KEY INSIGHTS
Job characteristics theory as originally developed by Hackman and Old-
ham (1976) views the relationship between job characteristics and their
outcomes as a three-stage model where certain job characteristics ulti-
mately lead to certain end states of motivation and satisfaction. More
specifically, job characteristics such as skill variety, task significance, task
identity, autonomy, and feedback are viewed as contributing to certain
intermediate psychological states including experienced meaningfulness,
experienced responsibility, and knowledge of results. These psychological
states, in turn, act to influence outcomes including satisfaction, growth
satisfaction, and motivation. Such views have subsequently stimulated
a wide range of studies on job characteristics including those aimed at
evaluating the relationships involved in the above factors as well as the
inclusion and influences of other factors into broader job characteristics-
related theory such as work pressure and its effects.
While similar in terminology, job characteristics theory is not to be
confused with goods-characterstics theory. (See characteristics theory.)
KEY WORDS Job design, satisfaction, motivation, performance
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers involved in job design can potentially benefit from understand-
ing the concepts and relationships suggested in job characteristics theory
if the aim of a job’s design is to achieve high levels of job satisfaction,
motivation, and performance. Whether a job involves individual perfor-
mance or team performance, the theory may potentially provide insights
into more effective designs for a range of marketing functions and jobs.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Management
Hartline, Michael D., and Ferrell, O. C. (1996). ‘The Management of Customer-
Contact Service Employees: An Empirical Investigation,’ Journal of Marketing,
60(4), October, 52–70.
285 John Henry effect
Emery, Charles R., and Fredendall, Lawrence D. (2002). ‘The Effect of Teams on
Firm Profitability and Customer Satisfaction,’ Journal of Service Research, 4(3), 217–
229.
Simon, W., Vickie, S., and Nelson, T. (1999). ‘The Impact of Demographic Factors
on Hong Kong Hotel Employees’ Choice of Job-Related Motivators,’ International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 11(5), 230—241.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hackman, J. R., and Oldham G. R. (1976). ‘Motivation through the Design of Work:
Test of a Theory,’ Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 250–279.
Hackman, J. R., and Oldham, G. R. (1980). Work Redesign. Reading, Mass.: Addison-
Wesley.
John Henry effect
DESCRIPTION
A possible adverse experimental effect where the actions and outcomes of
members of a control group are influenced by members’ knowledge of an
experiment involving an experimental group where specifically, the control
group members engage in competing with the experimental group in an
effort to obtain increased performance.
KEY INSIGHTS
Named after a worker who outperformed a machine because he knew
his performance was being compared to the machine, the John Henry
effect is a potential threat to the internal validity in experiments where
control of control groups is an issue. While an experimenter may wish to
simply compare the performance of one means of accomplishing a task
with another to assess the extent of difference if any, individuals involved
in accomplishing the task by the original means may feel threatened
by the new approach and become competitive, thereby increasing their
performance to levels not normally achieved. The effect is also referred
to by some as a reverse-Hawthorne effect.
KEY WORDS Experiments, control
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers involved in the development and testing of new means to
accomplish tasks involving individuals or teams (e.g. in comparing the
efficiency of a bank teller with an automated teller for certain complex
transactions) may wish to consider the possibility of the John Henry effect
potentially confounding the results of a study. Carefully controlling con-
ditions so as to eliminate or compensate the effect should be considered,
as where individuals or teams have no knowledge of efforts to compare
different methods for accomplishing a task.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Education
Phipps, Ronald, and Merisotis, Jamie (1999). ‘What’s the Difference? A Review
of Educational Research on the Effectiveness of Distance Learning in Higher
Education,’ Report Prepared for the American Federation of Teachers. Washington:
Institute for Higher Education Policy.
just world hypothesis 286
Zdep, S. M., and Irvine, S. H. (1970) ‘A Reverse Hawthorne Effect in Educational
Evaluation,’ Journal of School Psychology, 8, 89–95.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Saretsky, Gary (1975). ‘The John Henry Effect: Potential Confounder of Experimen-
tal vs. Control Group Approaches to the Evaluation of Educational Innovations,’
The Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), sponsored by the Institute of
Education Sciences of the US Department of Education.
joint marketing see cooperative marketing
Jost’s law see forgetting curve
junk e-mail marketing see mass marketing; viral marketing
jury method see forecasting methods
just noticeable difference see Weber–Fechner law
just world hypothesis
(also called the just world effect or the just world phenomenon)
DESCRIPTION
The tendency for people to falsely believe that the world is essentially fair and
just, with the result being that people get what they deserve.
KEY INSIGHTS
With the just world hypothesis, people believe that the good will be
rewarded and the bad will be punished. The view also leads to people
who suffer misfortunes to blame themselves. Conceptually developed by
Lerner (1965), the view is usually explained as a result of an illusion of
control.
KEY WORDS Attributions, justice, control
IMPLICATIONS
As the view of the world being just is a relatively widespread belief among
individuals, marketers must recognize that individuals may hold biased
and false perspectives about the causes and consequences of events.
Such a view may reinforce a belief that nothing bad should happen to a
person who does nothing wrong as well as that persons who experience
misfortunes must have done something wrong to deserve it. (See blam-
ing the victim.) Carrying such a view over to individual and collective
consumption behaviors, consumers may hold false beliefs about both
causes of consumption problems as well as solutions to consumption
problems. Particularly in the context of social marketing, marketers
seeking to influence such beliefs and encourage rational thought and
action can understand better consumer motivations and tendencies with
further knowledge of the phenomenon characterized by the just world
hypothesis.
287 just world hypothesis
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Social Marketing
Belk, Russell, Painter, John, and Semenik, Richard (1981). ‘Preferred Solutions
to the Energy Crisis as a Function of Causal Attributions,’ Journal of Consumer
Research, 8(3), December, 306–312.
Devine, P. G., Plant, E. A., and Harrison, K. (1999). ‘The Problem of “Us” Versus
“Them” and AIDS Stigma,’ American Behavioural Scientist, 42(7), 1212–1228.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lerner, M. J. (1965). ‘Evaluation of Performance and Reward as a Function of
Performer’s Reward and Attractiveness,’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
1, 355–360.
Lerner, M. J., and Miller, Donald T. (1978). ‘Just World Research and the Attribution
Process: Looking Back and Ahead,’ Psychological Bulletin, 85, 1030–1051.
K
key success factors
(also abbreviated as KSFs)
DESCRIPTION
Any asset or competence that is needed to compete successfully in the
marketplace.
KEY INSIGHTS
Key success factors are those that any firm in a particular market should
possess in order to be a viable competitor in the market. Thus, when
introducing a new product into an existing market, the success of the
introduction may hinge on the extent to which the firm has certain
assets and competencies that enable it to compete successfully. Assets
forming KSFs may include a strong brand name and financial resources.
Competencies forming KSFs may include personal selling competence
or online marketing competence. More specific uses of the key success
factors term are also found in relation to particular aspects of marketing
such as new product development.
KEY WORDS Marketplace competitiveness, firm success
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers should consider understanding key success factors to be an
essential input to marketing strategy development. For example, in being
able to compete successfully in the e-commerce marketplace, marketers
should recognize that KSFs include abilities such as being able to monitor
and track individual buying behavior and motivations and being able to
tailor the firm’s marketing to individual customers.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Di Benedetto, C. A. (1999). ‘Identifying the Key Success Factors in New Product
Launch,’ Journal of Product Innovation Management, 16, 530–544.
Retail Marketing
Dupuis, M., and Prime, N. (1996). ‘Business Distance and Global Retailing: A Model
for Analysis of Key Success/Failure Factors,’ International Journal of Retail and Distri-
bution Management, 24(11), 30–38.
Business-to-Business Marketing
De Vasconcellos, J. A. (1991). ‘Key Success Factors in Marketing Mature Products,’
Industrial Marketing Management, 20, 263–278.
289 key success factors
Marketing Research
Grunert, K. G., and Ellegaard, C. (1992). ‘The Concept of Key Success Factors: Theory
and Method,’ in M. J. Baker (ed.), Perspectives on Marketing Management. Chichester:
Wiley, iii. 245–274.
Mobile Marketing
Facchetti, A., Rangone, A., Renga, F. A., and Savoldelli, A. (2005). ‘Mobile Marketing:
An Analysis of Key Success Factors and the European Value Chain,’ International
Journal of Management and Decision Making, 6(1), 65–80.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sa, Jorge Alberto Sousa de Vasconcellos E., and Hambrick, Donald C. (1989). ‘Key
Success Factors: Test of a General Theory in the Mature Industrial-Product
Sector,’ Strategic Management Journal, 10(4), July–August, 367–382.
knowledge see buyer influence/readiness
KSFs see key success factors