Dacko S.G. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing Putting Theory to Use
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inoculation theory 270
KEY INSIGHTS
The innovation effect is considered to be one of two important param-
eters in models of demand and diffusion of innovation, where the other
key parameter is the imitation effect. The new-product growth model
developed by Bass (1969) formally characterizes its role in diffusion of
innovation descriptions, explanations, and predictions. In essence, the
innovation effect is due to individuals in a population acting mainly on
external sources of influence (e.g. new product advertising), as opposed to
social influences, in adopting innovations as a result of the innovations’
differences in comparison to existing products or services. Thus, to the
extent that a population is receptive to an innovation independent of
social influence, the innovation’s diffusion is facilitated.
KEY WORDS Diffusion, innovation, adoption
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers should seek to understand how the innovation effect may
contribute to explaining or anticipating the rate and extent of diffusion
of an innovation among any given target population. Whether the popu-
lation of the firm’s current product users or the population of an entire
country, the innovation effect resulting from communicating the nature
of a product’s or service’s innovative features and benefits may have
significant influence on the innovation’s diffusion and overall market
acceptance.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Modeling
Mahajan, Vijay, and Muller, Eitan (1979). ‘Innovation Diffusion and New Product
Growth Models in Marketing,’ Journal of Marketing, 43(4), Autumn, 55–68.
Dolan, Robert J., and Jeuland, Abel P. (1981). ‘Experience Curves and Dynamic
Demand Models: Implications for Optimal Pricing Strategies,’ Journal of Marketing,
45(1), Winter, 52–62.
Parthasarathy, M., Jun, S., and Mittelstaedt, R. A. (1997). ‘Multiple Diffusion and
Multicultural Aggregate Social Systems,’ International Marketing Review, 14(4–5),
233–247.
Gjerde, K. A. P., Slotnick, S. A., and Sobel, M. J. (2002). ‘New Product Innovation
with Multiple Features and Technology Constraints,’ Management Science, 48(10),
1268–1284.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bass, Frank M. (1969). ‘A New-Product Growth Model for Consumer Durables,’
Management Science, 15, January, 215–227.
innovative marketing see enlightened marketing
innovators see adopter categories
inoculation theory
DESCRIPTION
A theory of resistance to persuasion where a belief or attitude is made stronger
through a series of repeated mild attacks.
271 inoculation theory
KEY INSIGHTS
Based on pioneering research by McGuire (1964), inoculation theory
represents a view that an individual’s resistance to persuasion can
be increased through a pre-established process of inoculative com-
munications. Specifically, communication steps which may lead to
increased resistance to persuasion by the individual when he or she
is ultimately exposed to a future persuasive argument include: pro-
viding a warning to the individual of future efforts aimed at per-
suading so as to lead the individual to psychologically prepare, or
even over-prepare, to resist them; subjecting the individual to a weak
persuasive argument aimed at overcoming the individual’s defenses,
yet where the argument is sufficiently strong to encourage the
individual to defend it; and encouraging the individual to actively
defend the argument through words or actions as opposed to merely
thoughts.
KEY WORDS Persuasion, arguments, resistance
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers aiming at changing or reinforcing particular consumer behav-
iors can draw upon inoculation theory to design potentially more
effective marketing communications. For example, providing inocu-
lative arguments to consumers may prevent their switching to a
competitor’s product. When a firm knows a competitor will soon
be introducing an alternative product aimed at taking away the
firm’s current customers, the firm can use communications aimed
at warning them that a competitor will soon be trying to per-
suade them to switch as well as providing them with reasons why
they should still prefer the firm’s product over any competitor’s
product.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Communications
Lessne, Greg J., and Didow, Nicholas M., Jr. (1987). ‘Innoculation Theory
and Resistance to Persuasion in Marketing,’ Psychology and Marketing, 4(2),
157–165.
Crowley, Ayn E., and Hoyer, Wayne D. (1994). ‘An Integrative Framework for
Understanding Two-Sided Persuasion,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 20(4), March,
561–574.
Buttle, F. A. (1998). ‘Word of Mouth: Understanding and Managing Referral Mar-
keting,’ Journal of Strategic Marketing, 6(3), 241–254.
Compton, J. A., and Pfau, M. (2004). ‘Use of Inoculation to Foster Resistance to
Credit Card Marketing Targeting College Students,’ Journal of Applied Communica-
tion Research, 32(4), 343–364.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Szybillo, George J., and Heslin, Richard (1973). ‘Resistance to Persuasion: Inocula-
tion Theory in a Marketing Context,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 10(4), Novem-
ber, 396–403.
McGuire, W. J. (1964). ‘Inducing Resistance to Persuasion: Some Contemporary
Approaches’, in L. Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,vol.i.
New York: Academic Press, 191–229.
institutional marketing 272
inseparability see service characteristics
institutional marketing
DESCRIPTION
Organizational marketing efforts aimed at influencing broad audiences within
a common industry, function, or issue orientation, with particular emphasis
on the marketing efforts of large public organizations.
KEY INSIGHTS
Institutional marketing, being concerned with the marketing efforts of
organizations such as higher education institutions, hospitals, and other
public organizations, emphasizes marketing to accomplish institutional
aims and objectives. As such, institutional marketing can be viewed as
an imperative for institutions seeking to increase institutional awareness
in the marketplace, stimulate interest in the institution among prospec-
tive customers, facilitate positive evaluations among such individuals
as well as diverse publics (e.g. employers, government agencies), and
ultimately encourage customers to adopt the institution’s offerings. Yet,
the nature of some institutions, given characteristics such as large size
and public status, is such that institutional marketing efforts may lead
certain organizations to be slow or unresponsive in the development
and implementation of their marketing efforts. Furthermore, individuals
on the receiving end of such efforts may view the institution as being
impersonal, necessitating a challenge for marketers at such institutions
to implement approaches to encourage greater responsiveness to market-
place needs.
KEY WORDS Large organizations, public organizations
IMPLICATIONS
A greater understanding of institutional marketing enables marketers
engaging in such efforts to recognize more clearly the many challenges
and opportunities that are associated with large public institutions,
which may include timely responsiveness to changes in market condi-
tions. In addition, marketers within such organizations may benefit from
leveraging the institution’s marketing efforts in reaching and engaging
with current and prospective customers on a more personal level—
something that may facilitate the development of stronger (and more
profitable) customer relationships.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Education
Brown, John Anthony (1978). ‘The Role of Academic Programs in Institutional
Marketing; Administrator Role; College Choice; Higher Education; Institutional
Characteristics; Marketing; Presidents; Publicize; School Holding Power; Student
Recruitment,’ New Directions for Higher Education, 21 (Marketing Higher Education),
6(1), Spring, 1–6.
Krause, Robin D. (2003). ‘Managing Higher ed Web Sites: Balancing the Need for
Timely Updates, the Requirements of Institutional Marketing, and the Devel-
opment of Content,’ User Services Conference archive, Proceedings of the 31st
273 integrated marketing communications
annual ACM SIGUCCS conference on User services, San Antonio, Tex. New York:
ACM Press, 139–141.
O’Brian, Edward J. (1973). ‘Marketing Higher Education: Administration; Distrib-
utive Education; Educational Administration; Educational Objectives; Extension
Education; Higher Education; Institutional Role; Marketing; Planning; Tuition,’
College and University Journal, 12(4), September, 22–23.
Marketing Ethics
Jones, J. W., McCullough, L. B., and Richman, B. W. (2003). ‘Ethics of Institutional
Marketing: Role of Physicians,’ Journal of Vascular Surgery, 38(2), August, 409–410.
Marketing Strategy
Stumpf, Stephen, and Longman, Robert (2000). ‘The Ultimate Consultant: Building
Long-Term, Exceptional Value Client Relationships,’ Career Development Interna-
tional, 5, 124–134.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Michael, Steve, Holdaway, Ed, and Young, H. Clifton (1993). ‘Administrators’ Per-
ceptions of Institutional Marketing,’ Journal of Marketing for Higher Education,4,
3–25.
in-store marketing see retail marketing
intangibility see service characteristics
integrated direct marketing see direct marketing
integrated marketing see concurrent marketing
integrated marketing communications
DESCRIPTION
Marketing emphasizing the full integration or merging of multiple, different
marketing communication approaches with the aim of achieving synergistic
effects and superior results relative to approaches where multiple marketing
communication activities are pursued but not coordinated.
KEY INSIGHTS
An integrated marketing communications (IMC) approach is aimed at
assisting the firm in communicating with customers and other stake-
holders in a clear, consistent, and compelling manner. Given an under-
standing of customer and stakeholder profiles (e.g. demographics, psy-
chographics), a firm adopting an IMC approach is then able to draw
upon such information to develop communication strategies involving
the integrated use of multiple communication methods including adver-
tising, sales promotions, and public relations, where the net effect of the
approach is a strengthening of the firm’s relationships with its customers
and/or stakeholders.
KEY WORDS Marketing communication, communications integration, int-
egration
IMPLICATIONS
As a central part of marketing involves effective marketing commu-
nication with current or potential customers and other stakeholders,
integration 274
marketers may benefit from a better understanding of the both the
breadth and depth of integrated marketing communications research.
For example, in the development and implementation of effective adver-
tising and sales promotions, IMC-related research can assist the marketer
with understanding how and to what extent the two approaches may be
used in combination to achieve a superior customer response.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Percy, Larry (1997). Strategies for Implementing Integrated Marketing Communications.
Lincolnwood, Ill.: NTC Business Books.
Keller, Kevin Lane (2001). ‘Mastering the Marketing Communications Mix: Micro
and Macro Perspectives on Integrated Marketing Communication Programs,’
Journal of Marketing Management, 17(7–8), August, 819–847.
Marketing Management
McArthur, D. N., and Griffin, T. (1997). ‘A Marketing Management View of Inte-
grated Marketing Communication,’ Journal of Advertising Research, 37(5), 19–26.
Advertising
Schultz, D., and Kitchen, P. J. (1997). ‘Integrated Marketing Communications in U.S.
Advertising Agencies,’ Journal of Advertising Research, 37(5), 7–18.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Schultz, Don, Lauterborn, Robert, and Tannenbaum, Stanley (1993). Integrated Mar-
keting Communications. Lincolnwood, Ill.: NTC Business Books.
Schultz, Don E., Tannenbaum, Stanley I., and Lauterborn, Robert F. (1994). The New
Marketing Paradigm. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.
integration
DESCRIPTION
A process whereby firms combine or merge for a strategic purpose.
KEY INSIGHTS
Integration among firms can take place along several dimensions. Com-
mon characterizations of integration include vertical integration, where
two firms at different stages in a production processs merge to form a sin-
gle business entity, and horizontal integration, where two firms at the same
stage of the production process merge to form a single business entity.
In addition, firms vertically integrating can be said to engage in either
backward integration, where a firm merges with (or acquires) an upstream
supplier for its production process, or forward integration, where a firm
merges with (or acquires) a downstream distributor or customer. Firms
pursuing vertical integration often do so to control sources of supply or
demand and/or as a means to increase profit potential, whereas firms
pursuing horizontal integration may do so to achieve greater economies
of scale.
KEY WORDS Mergers, acquisitions
IMPLICATIONS
Marketing strategists seeking to understand better the benefits as well
as risks associated with different integration approaches may benefit
275 intellectual property
from greater knowledge of integration processes. Such knowledge may
assist the marketer in understanding how and to what extent different
approaches may provide the firm or others in the firm’s industry with a
possible competitive advantage. At the same time, marketers must take
care to weigh such options with alternatives that may include strategic
alliances, technology license agreements, and franchises, for example.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Anderson, E., and Weitz, B. (1986). ‘Make-or-Buy Decisions: Vertical Integration and
Marketing Productivity,’ Sloan Management Review, 27(3), 3–19.
Balakrishnan, Srinivasan, and Wernerfelt, Berger (1986). ‘Technical Change, Com-
petition and Vertical Integration,’ Strategic Management Journal, 7, 347–355.
Varadarajan, P. Rajan, and Rajaratnam, Daniel (1986). ‘Symbiotic Marketing Revis-
ited,’ Journal of Marketing, 50(1), January, 7–17.
Kenneth, Arrow (1975). ‘Vertical Integration and Communication,’ Bell Journal of
Economics, 6, Spring, 173–183.
Morton, F. M. S. (2002). ‘Horizontal Integration between Brand and Generic Firms
in the Pharmaceutical Industry,’ Journal of Economics and Management Strategy,
11(1), 135–168.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
McDaniel, Stephen W., and Kolari, James W. (1987). ‘Marketing Strategy Impli-
cations of the Miles and Snow Strategic Typology,’ Journal of Marketing, 51(4),
October, 19–30.
intellectual property
DESCRIPTION
Products of intellectual work that have commercial value.
KEY INSIGHTS
Firms engaged in creative endeavors, whether developing innovative new
products or simply a new brand name, have a potential ownership stake
in intellectual property. Major forms of intellectual property include
patents, which are legal rights to exclude others from making, using, or
selling some combination of elements that are new, useful, and unobvi-
ous; copyrights, which are protective legal rights covering literary, musical,
and artistic works; trademarks, which are protective legal rights covering
words, symbols, phrases, names, or other devices or combinations of
such devices associated with ownership of a product or service, and trade
secrets, which are processes, patterns, formulas, devices, information, and
the like that are known only to their owner (or, in the case of a firm,
the owner’s employees). Trade secrets are often viewed as an alternative
to the legal and public registration of intellectual property, where trade
secrets have strategic and commercial value to the extent that they are
not known or knowable to competitors of the firm.
KEY WORDS Property rights, legal protection
IMPLICATIONS
As much of marketing involves creative initiatives within an organiza-
tion, marketers should seek to understand the many options available to
internal marketing 276
the firm for protecting and exploiting the firm’s intellectual property. Just
as importantly, marketers should seek to understand how and to what
extent different options have potential benefits, costs, risks, and limita-
tions for the firm from marketing, competitive, and legal standpoints.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Borg, E. A. (2001). ‘Knowledge, Information and Intellectual Property: Implications
for Marketing Relationships,’ Technovation, 21(8), 515–524.
Cohen, Dorothy (1991). ‘Trademark Strategy Revisited,’ Journal of Marketing, 5, July,
46–59.
Peterson, R. A., Smith, K. H., and Zerillo, P. C. (1999). ‘Trademark Dilution and the
Practice of Marketing,’ Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 27(2), 255–268.
Miaoulis, G., and D’Amato, N. (1978). ‘Consumer Confusion and Trademark
Infringement,’ Journal of Marketing, 42, 48–55.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ostergard, R. L. (2000). ‘The Measurement of Intellectual Property Rights Protec-
tion,’ Journal of International Business Studies, 31(2), 349–360.
Maskus, Keith (2000). Intellectual Property Rights in the Global Economy. Washington:
Institute for International Economics.
intensive distribution see distribution strategies
interactive marketing see online marketing
interest see adoption process
intermarket segmentation see segmentation
intermediate good see goods
internal marketing
DESCRIPTION
Marketing efforts within a firm that are directed at its internal stakeholders.
KEY INSIGHTS
Just as most firms recognize that marketing principles and prac-
tices enable a firm to accomplish marketplace objectives when they
are directed at current and prospective customers and other external
stakeholders, internal marketing is viewed as beneficial when a firm’s
management seeks to gain support for some initiative from its internal
stakeholders (e.g. employees, organizational volunteers). Internal market-
ing therefore adopts the view that it is important to understand the needs
and wants of internal stakeholders and that the firm should consider how
communications and other elements of marketing (e.g. compensation,
working conditions, job responsibilities) may be used to encourage such
stakeholders to buy into what the firm’s management has to offer. Unlike
external offerings, however, the firm’s internal offerings may consist of a
new marketing strategy that the firm’s management would like to pursue
or a new programme that the firm would like to implement in support
of a new or different marketing strategy.
277 internalization theory
KEY WORDS Employees, organizational buy-in
IMPLICATIONS
Marketing managers and strategists should not assume that their enthu-
siasm and commitment for new firm initiatives will be shared to the
same extent with other internal stakeholders. To overcome resistance
to change, management should consider developing and implementing
internal marketing strategies that encourage appropriate organizational
internal stakeholder buy-in to the marketer’s proposed (or in-progress)
strategies, plans, and tactics.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Piercy, N., and Morgan N. (1991). ‘Internal Marketing: The Missing Half of the
Marketing Programme,’ Long Range Planning, 24(2), 82–93.
Marketing Management
Piercy, N. (1995). ‘Customer Satisfaction and the Internal Market: Marketing our
Customers to our Employees,’ Journal of Marketing Practice and Applied Marketing
Science, 1(1), 22–44.
Bak, Constance A., Vogt, Leslie H., George, William R., and Greentree, I. Richard
(1994). ‘Management by Team: An Innovative Tool for Running a Service Organ-
ization through Internal Marketing,’ Journal of Services Marketing, 8(1), 37–47.
George, William R. (1990). ‘Internal Marketing and Organizational Behavior: A Part-
nership in Developing Customer-Conscious Employees at Every Level,’ Journal of
Business Research, 20(1), 63–70.
Services Marketing
Greene, W. E., Walls, G. D., and Schrest, L. J. (1994). ‘Internal Marketing: The Key
to External Marketing Success,’ Journal of Services Marketing, 8(4), 5–13.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grönroos, C. (1985). ‘Internal Marketing: Theory and Practice,’ in T. M. Bloch,
G. D. Upah, and V. A. Zeithaml (eds.), Services Marketing in a Changing Environment.
Chicago: American Marketing Association, 41–47.
internal validity see validity
internalization theory
DESCRIPTION
A theory aimed at explaining and predicting the growth and structure of
multinational enterprise where internalization of imperfections in external
markets across national boundaries is viewed as leading to the creation of
multinational enterprises.
KEY INSIGHTS
Based on pioneering research by Buckley and Casson (1976), the develop-
ment of internalization theory emphasizes the role of imperfections in
intermediate product markets, such as those associated with knowledge,
expertise, intellectual property, and human capital, in the creation of
multinational enterprises (MNEs). Such market imperfections generate
international marketing 278
benefits of internalization. Furthermore, the theory suggests that inter-
nalization occurs only to the point where benefits equal the costs. While
the internalization decision for a firm may be complex, it can be viewed
as influenced by factors related to the industry, region, nation, and the
firm. The theory therefore can be used to support suggestions including
that where MNEs choose to set up subsidiaries to exploit technological
advantages abroad as a result of licensing arrangements being too diffi-
cult with indigenous firms.
KEY WORDS Multinational enterprise, international operations
IMPLICATIONS
Internalization theory provides a rich set of concepts and perspectives
with which to analyze current states of multinational enterprise and
anticipate future states. Marketers may therefore aim to achieve relevant
knowledge of particular firms, industries, regions, and nations to enable
analyses supporting strategic decisions related to MNE structure and
growth.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
International Marketing
Doherty, A. M. (1999). ‘Explaining International Retailers’ Market Entry Mode Strat-
egy: Internalization Theory, Agency Theory and the Importance of Information
Asymmetry,’ International Review of Retail Distribution and Consumer Research, 9(4),
379–402.
Buckley, P. J., and Casson, M. C. (1998). ‘Analyzing Foreign Market Entry Strategies:
Extending the Internalization Approach,’ Journal of International Business Studies ,
29(3), 539–562.
Chen, Shih-Fen S. (2005). ‘Extending Internalization Theory: A New Perspective on
International Technology Transfer and its Generalization,’ Journal of International
Business Studies, 36(2), March, 231–245.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Buckley, Peter J., and Casson, M. C. (1976). The Future of the Multinational Enterprise.
London: Macmillan.
Buckley, P. J., and Casson, M. C. (1998). ‘Models of the Multinational Enterprise,’
Journal of International Business Studies, 29(1), 21–44.
Rugman, A. M., and Verbeke, A. (2003). ‘Extending the Theory of the Multinational
Enterprise: Internalization and Strategic Management Perspectives,’ Journal of
International Business Studies, 34(2), 125–137.
international marketing
DESCRIPTION
Marketing concerned with developing and managing trade across interna-
tional boundaries.
KEY INSIGHTS
While international marketing has much in common with cross-cultural
marketing (see cross-cultural marketing) in its emphasis on spanning
and/or bridging markets that differ in important broad respects, inter-
national marketing may involve efforts that span multiple countries but
279 international marketing
where countries do not differ significantly on a cultural dimension as
much as on other characteristics (e.g. legal or economic dimensions).
Nevertheless, international marketing is necessarily concerned with any
and all country market differences that may ultimately influence the
accomplishment of the firm’s marketing objectives. As most firms do not
initiate operations in multiple countries all at once but rather interna-
tionalize incrementally, a considerable amount of international market-
ing research is focused on criteria and approaches for expanding a firm’s
international market presence.
KEY WORDS Trade, country markets
IMPLICATIONS
While there are many major issues facing international marketers (e.g.
assessments of country market attractiveness, international market dis-
tribution strategy development) an important broad issue facing many
international marketers is the extent to which the firm’s offerings
should be standardardized across countries versus adapted to account for
country-specific conditions. Given that such decisions may be influenced
by both macroenvironmental and microenvironmental criteria, a greater
knowledge of international marketing issues, frameworks, and methods
may clearly assist the international marketer with more effective decision
making.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Szymanski, David M., Bharadwaj, Sundar G., and Varadarajan, P. Rajan (1993). ‘Stan-
dardization versus Adaptation of International Marketing Strategy: An Empirical
Investigation,’ Journal of Marketing, 57(4), October, 1–17.
Marketing Management
Tse, David K., Lee, Kam-hon, Vertinsky, Ilan, and Wehrung, Donald A. (1988). ‘Does
Culture Matter? A Cross-cultural Study of Executives’ Choice, Decisiveness, and
Risk Adjustment in International Marketing,’ Journal of Marketing, 52(4), October,
81–95.
Jain, S. (1990). International Marketing Management. Boston: Kent-PWS Publishing.
Online Marketing
Hamill, J. (1997). ‘The Internet and International Marketing,’ International Marketing
Review, 14(4/5), 300–323.
International Marketing
Kaynak, Erdener (1999). ‘Cross-national and Cross-cultural Issues in Food Market-
ing: Past, Present and Future,’ Journal of International Food and Agribusiness Market-
ing, 10(4), 1–11.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Onkvisit, S., and Shaw, J. (2004). International Marketing: Analysis and Strategy. London:
Routledge.
Terpstra, V., and Sarathy, R. (2000). International Marketing. Fort Worth: Dryden Press.
Czinkota, M. R., and Ronkainen, I. A. (1993). International Marketing, 3rd edn. Fort
Worth: Dryden Press.
Hofstede, Geert H. (1980). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-
Related Values. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications.