Catuneanu O. Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy

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and Catuneanu, 2004b; Eriksson et al., 2005a, b). Basins

related to plume-controlled first-order cycles (i.e., plume

tectonics) are prone to a dominantly nonmarine sedi-

mentation regime because the net amount of thermal

uplift generally exceeds the amount of subsidence

created via extension above the ascending plume.

As plume tectonics was much more prevalent in the

Precambrian relative to the Phanerozoic, the low- and

high-accommodation systems tracts seem to be more

commonly applicable with increasing stratigraphic age.

In contrast, basins related to plate tectonic activity are

dominated by subsidence, and so they are prone to be

transgressed by interior seaways. Classical sequence

stratigraphy may thus be applied to such settings, where

falling-stage, lowstand, transgressive, and highstand

systems tracts may be recognized in relation to partic-

ular stages of shoreline shifts. Even such subsidence-

dominated basins, however, may reach an overfilled

state under high sediment-supply conditions, in which

case the recognition of fully fluvial systems tracts (low

vs. high accommodation) becomes the only option for

the sequence-stratigraphic approach. Case studies of

such overfilled plate-tectonic-related basins have been

documented for both Precambrian and Phanerozoic

successions (e.g., Boyd et al., 1999; Zaitlin et al., 2000,

2002; Wadsworth et al., 2002, 2003; Leckie and Boyd,

2003; Eriksson and Catuneanu, 2004a; Ramaekers and

Catuneanu, 2004).

Arguably the most important contribution of

Precambrian research to sequence stratigraphy is the

better understanding of the mechanisms controlling

stratigraphic cyclicity in the rock record, and hence of

the criteria that should be employed in a system of

sequence stratigraphic hierarchy. There is increasing

evidence that the tectonic regimes which controlled

the formation and evolution of sedimentary basins in

the more distant geological past were much more erratic

in terms of origin and rates than formerly inferred solely

from the study of the Phanerozoic record (Fig. 8.4;

Eriksson et al., 2005a, b). In this context, time is largely

irrelevant as a parameter in the classification of strati-

graphic sequences, and it is rather the stratigraphic

record of changes in the tectonic setting that provides

the key criteria for the basic subdivision of the rock

record into basin-fill successions separated by first-

order sequence boundaries. These first-order basin-fill

successions are in turn subdivided into second- and

lower-order sequences that result from shifts in the

balance between accommodation and sedimentation at

various scales of observation, irrespective of the time

span between two same-order consecutive events.

Sequences identified in any particular basin are not

expected to correlate to other first- and lower-order

sequences of other basins, which are likely characterized

by different timing and duration. More details on the

concept of sequence stratigraphic hierarchy are provided

in Chapter 8.

MOVING FORWARD TOWARD

STANDARDIZING SEQUENCE

STRATIGRAPHY

As discussed throughout the book, at least three

different approaches to sequence stratigraphic analysis

are currently promoted by different ‘schools’ (Figs. 1.6

and 1.7). The inherent confusions caused by this variety

of opinions have a negative impact on the ‘consumer’

(i.e., the practitioner who applies this method to the

analysis of the rock record), on the communication

of ideas and results between practitioners embracing

alternative approaches to stratigraphic analysis, and

also on the previous attempts to standardize sequence

stratigraphic concepts in international stratigraphic

codes (see Chapter 1 for more details). Despite this

lack of cohesiveness in the field of sequence stratigraphy,

common ground is bound to exist since all stratigra-

phers, regardless of their background and preferences,

are essentially describing the same rocks, only using

a different style for their conceptual packaging into

sequences and systems tracts. Finding this common

ground is the key for making real progress towards

standardizing the fundamental concepts of sequence

stratigraphy. This also requires scientific objectivity to

prevail over dogmas and egos.

Standardizing sequence stratigraphy is in fact

within reach, and can be achieved by looking back

at the basic principles that represent the foundation

of this relatively young and developing discipline.

Fundamentally, sequence stratigraphy analyzes the

sedimentary response to base-level changes, and the

depositional trends that emerge from the interplay of

accommodation and sedimentation. Base-level changes

(accommodation) and sedimentation are therefore

the ‘structural pillars’ of the sequence stratigraphic

architecture. Hence, all four main events of the base-

level cycle need to be accounted for, in a balanced and

fair approach, in order to extract the essence of what

sequence stratigraphy is all about (Fig. 4.7).

In search for a standardized approach to sequence

stratigraphy, the following basic principles need to be

considered:

1. Sequence stratigraphic surfaces are surfaces that can

serve, at least in part, as systems tract or sequence

boundaries. The set of seven sequence stratigraphic

surfaces are defined relative to the four main events of

a reference base-level cycle (Fig. 4.7). These surfaces

340 9. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

are well established, even though their assigned

degree of usefulness and/or importance may vary

with the model.

2. As a function of subsidence patterns, the magnitude

and timing of base-level changes may vary within

a sedimentary basin, from one area to another. The

reference curve relative to which sequence strati-

graphic surfaces and systems tracts are defined

(Figs. 4.6 and 4.7) describes changes in base level at

the shoreline, wherever the shoreline happens to be

within the basin at any given time (see Chapter 7 for

details).

3. The four main events of the reference base-level cycle

mark changes in the direction and/or type of shore-

line shift (i.e., forced regressions, normal regressions,

transgressions; Figs. 3.19 and 4.7). These changes

control the formation and timing of all sequence

stratigraphic surfaces and systems tracts. The excep-

tion is represented by overfilled basins, dominated

by nonmarine sedimentation, where the definition

of systems tracts is based on changes in the ratio

between channel and overbank fluvial architectural

elements.

4. Recognition of sequence stratigraphic surfaces in the

rock record is data-dependant. For example, subaerial

unconformities represented by paleosols may be

impossible to identify on well logs, in the absence

of core. This does not mean that ‘subtle’ subaerial

unconformities need to be discarded from the list of

sequence stratigraphic surfaces. It simply means that

the available data may be insufficient to pinpoint the

position of that surface in particular sections of the

rock record, and that additional data are required.

Similarly, correlative conformities in shallow-water

successions, as well as maximum regressive surfaces

in deep-water successions, may be impossible to

identify in outcrop, core or well logs, in the absence

of seismic data.

5. Inherent difficulties in recognizing any of the

sequence stratigraphic surfaces, depending on case

studies and the available data sets, do not negate

their existence or validity. In most cases, this is just a

reflection of the lack of sufficient data. Integration of

outcrop, core, well-log, and seismic data affords the

most effective application of the sequence strati-

graphic method.

6. Different genetic types of deposits (i.e., forced regres-

sive, normal regressive, transgressive) need to be

separated as distinct systems tracts, data permitting,

as this is the key to the predictive aspect of sequence

stratigraphy. Each such genetic wedge (systems tract)

is characterized by different sediment dispersal

patterns, as well as distribution and type of economic

deposits (Figs. 5.7, 5.14, 5.26, 5.27, 5.44, 5.56, and 5.57).

7. Sequence stratigraphic surfaces that form independ-

ently of sedimentation (i.e., onset-of-fall and end-of-

fall ‘correlative conformities’) are closer to time lines

than surfaces that mark the end of regression and

onset of transgression (i.e., maximum regressive and

maximum flooding surfaces, respectively; Figs. 3.19

and 4.7) (see discussion in Chapter 7).

8. The highest-frequency (lowest-order/rank) cycles in

the rock record reflect the true changes in deposi-

tional trends. All higher-order/rank cycles represent

overall trends, which approximate the true facies

shifts at different scales of observation (Fig. 8.2).

Lower-rank stratigraphic surfaces superimposed on

higher-rank surfaces do not change the stratigraphic

significance of the latter within the bigger-picture

framework. A sequence stratigraphic framework

constructed at a particular hierarchical level should

consistently include sequence stratigraphic surfaces

of equal rank.

9. Where two or more sequence stratigraphic surfaces

are superimposed, always use the name of the

youngest surface.

The lack of formal inclusion of sequence stratigraphic

concepts in the current international stratigraphic codes

may be attributed largely to trivial differences in termi-

nology and the style of conceptual packaging of the

(same) rock record into sequences and systems tracts

(Figs. 1.6 and 1.7). The choice of how we name the pack-

ages of strata between specific sequence stratigraphic

surfaces varies with the model (Fig. 1.7), which is why

the systems tract nomenclature becomes less impor-

tant than the correct identification of the type of shore-

line shift that is associated with that particular

package of strata. Even the selection of what surface

(or set of surfaces) should serve as the ‘sequence

boundary’ (Figs. 6.1 and 6.2) becomes subjective and

trivial to some extent, as the correct interpretation

of sequence stratigraphic surfaces and of the origin

of strata that separate them is far more important for

the success of the sequence stratigraphic method.

Irrespective of the model of choice, the ‘pulse’ of

sequence stratigraphy is fundamentally represented by

shoreline shifts, whose type and timing control the forma-

tion of all genetic packages of strata (systems tracts) and

bounding surfaces. Beyond nomenclatural prefer-

ences, each stage of shoreline shift (normal regression,

forced regression, transgression) corresponds to the

formation of a systems tract with unique characteristics

in terms of the nature of processes and products across

a sedimentary basin (see Chapter 5 for a full discussion

of all systems tracts). These fundamental principles are

common among all models, and allow for a unified

sequence stratigraphic approach.

MOVING FORWARD TOWARD STANDARDIZING SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY 341

Beyond all arguments and disagreements, the orig-

inal definition of a ‘sequence’ by Mitchum (1977) still

fits all different approaches to sequence stratigraphic

analysis, and it is therefore recommended to be kept

‘generic,’ without specific connotations with regards

to the nature of the unconformities (subaerial or marine)

and their correlative conformities (‘basal surface of

forced regression,’ ‘correlative conformity,’ ‘maximum

regressive surface’ or ‘maximum flooding surface’).

This approach is similar to the formal definition of

allostratigraphic discontinuity-bounded units (generic,

with the definition of ‘discontinuities’ left at the discre-

tion of the practicing geologist), and provides a first step

towards formalizing sequence stratigraphic concepts.

Once the concept of a ‘sequence’ is agreed upon, more

discussions can follow as to what sequence strati-

graphic surfaces are most appropriate candidates for

sequence boundaries. The discussion in Chapter 6 leads

to the conclusion that, for the nonmarine portion of a

basin, the subaerial unconformity represents the best

choice for a sequence boundary, as being associated

with the most significant hiatus in a stratigraphic succes-

sion and separating strata that are genetically related.

For the marine portion of the basin, the correlative

conformity sensu Hunt and Tucker (1992) is the only

sequence stratigraphic surface that represents the true

correlative of the basinward termination of the subaer-

ial unconformity, both temporally and spatially, and it

is therefore recommended here as the logical counter-

part of the subaerial unconformity for the definition of

a throughgoing sequence boundary across an entire

sedimentary basin. This choice has been made by the

proponents of the depositional sequence models III

and IV (Figs. 1.6 and 1.7). Once again, however, the

selection of a sequence boundary is arbitrary to some

extent, and less important than the correct identification

of all sequence stratigraphic surfaces that are present

within a study area, and of the genetic nature of inter-

vening strata.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Sequence stratigraphy is a modern approach to

analyzing the sedimentary rock record within a time

framework (Fig. 1.8). Arriving at what is known today

as sequence stratigraphy took more than a century of

conceptual developments, as many of its ‘first princi-

ples’ have been defined within the context of the broad

field of sedimentary geology, long before the terms

seismic or sequence stratigraphy have been coined

and incorporated as such into the literature. Among

the fundamental concepts of sequence stratigraphy,

the importance of base-level changes on sedimentation

was recognized since the nineteenth century (Gilbert,

1895; Barrell, 1917; Wanless and Shepard, 1936; Wheeler

and Murray, 1957), while the concept of ‘sequence,’ as

an unconformity-bounded unit, was in circulation for

several decades (Wheeler, 1959; Sloss, 1962, 1963).

Building on this foundation, the refinements brought

about by sequence stratigraphy include the recogni-

tion and interpretation of systems tracts (Brown and

Fisher, 1977; Fig. 1.9), and the integration of seismic

data with rock data for a more comprehensive and

continuous imaging of the rock record (Payton, 1977;

Posamentier and Allen, 1999). These refinements

represent significant advances in the understanding of

the sedimentary rock record, and triggered what has

been described as the third and most recent paradigm

in sedimentary geology (Miall, 1995; see Chapter 1 for

further details).

Consequently, sequence stratigraphy is neither the

first nor the last step in the evolution of methods of

analysis of sedimentary basin fills. The complexity

and accuracy of geological models produced to resolve

academic or economic issues improved through time

in response to corresponding advances in concepts

and technology. Classical geology remains the founda-

tion of everything we know today, by providing the

means to understanding the ‘first principles’ of sedi-

mentary geology (Fig. 2.1). Cornerstone advances

that led or contributed to the development of modern

sequence stratigraphy include the concepts of base

level (nineteenth century), unconformity-bounded

sequence (1950s and 1960s), flow regimes (1950s and

1960s), plate tectonics (1960s), basin analysis (1970s),

seismic stratigraphy (1970s), and the notion of systems

tracts (1970s and 1980s). From here, modern sequence

stratigraphy bloomed in the 1980s, and its principles

are still being refined today.

Stimulated by technological advances in the fields

of three-dimensional seismic data acquisition and

processing, seismic geomorphology also developed in

parallel with sequence stratigraphy, starting with the

1990s. As defined by Posamentier (2000, 2004a), seismic

geomorphology deals with the imaging of depositional

systems, and elements thereof, using three-dimensional

seismic data. While seismic geomorphology can be

performed independently of a base-level-controlled

framework of stratigraphic architecture, it can also be

successfully integrated into sequence stratigraphy for

producing comprehensive models that combine insights

from section view (classical seismic stratigraphy:

reflection terminations, stratigraphic discontinuities,

reflection geometries and inferred depositional systems)

and map view (seismic geomorphology: imaging of

geological features, and particularly depositional

342 9. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

systems and depositional elements). Such three-

dimensional control of the sedimentary basin fill is

important at any stage, from exploration in frontier

areas to the development of production fields, because

it enhances the accuracy of facies predictability.

What will follow next in the development of present-

day sequence stratigraphy is difficult to predict. Current

efforts are concentrated on reducing the error margin

of stratigraphic models and interpretations, during both

exploration and production stages, as well as reducing

the costs of exploration and production. As with the

introduction of seismic geomorphology, technological

advances will dictate the next cornerstone that can be

achieved. For example, virtual core simulations using

electric logs (micro resistivity images; Fig. 2.30) repre-

sent a relatively new technique that is currently being

developed, which permits the reconstruction of sedimen-

tary structures (insights into process sedimentology/

stratigraphy) at mm scale by providing continuous

virtual coring of boreholes, thus eliminating the costs

of mechanical coring. Such new techniques, and data

sets, will continue to be integrated into sequence

stratigraphy in order to advance our knowledge and

understanding of the evolution and architecture of

sedimentary basin fills.

Lastly, the real world is far more complex than we

can ever model, so one needs to keep an open mind

when trying to find patterns that match the predictions

of any sequence stratigraphic model. Sequence strati-

graphic principles offer theoretical guidelines of how the

facies and time relationships are expected to be under

specific circumstances such as subsidence patterns,

sediment supply, topographic gradients, etc., but these

circumstances may change significantly with the type

of sedimentary basin, as each tectonic setting is unique

in terms of subsidence mechanisms, sediment supply

and dispersal patterns, physiography, etc. This is one of

the main sources for the conflicting ideas between the

various models currently in use, as their proponents

draw their conclusions from case studies derived from

different tectonic settings. The study of similarities and

differences between the sequence stratigraphic architec-

tures of basins formed in different tectonic settings will

help identify a broader platform of theoretical principles

that should place all current ideas into a more general

context. Such syntheses are still being formulated, and

the incorporation of the variability imposed by changes

in the tectonic setting to the sequence stratigraphic

model represents a logical next step in the evolution of

sequence stratigraphy.

CONCLUDING REMARKS 343

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