Camp J. The Archaeology of Athens

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Castren, P. (ed.) Post-Herulian Athens: Aspects of Life and Culture in Athens, A.D. 267–529.

Helsinki, 1994.

Frazer, J. G. Pausanias’ Description of Greece. London, 1913. Book I, with commentary.

Goette, H. P. Athen-Attika-Megaris. Cologne, 1993.

Harrison, J. Primitive Athens as Described by Thucydides. Cambridge, 1906.

Hill, I. T. The Ancient City of Athens. Cambridge, 1953.

Judeich, W. Topographie von Athen, 2d ed. Munich, 1931.

Laborde, L. E. S. J., Compte de. Athènes aux XVe, XVIe et XVIIe siècles. Paris, 1854.

Malouchou-Tufano, Ph. ÔH ΔAnasthvlwsh tw

n ΔArcaivwn Mnhmeivwn sthv Newvterhn ÔEllavda

(1834–1839). Athens, 1998.

Mountjoy, P. Mycenaean Athens. Göteborg, 1995.

Papageorgiou-Venetas, A. Athens: The Ancient Heritage and the Historic Cityscape in a Mod-

ern Metropolis. Athens, 1994. See especially pp. 269–321.

TAPA (Ministry of Culture), Tov “Ergo tou

Upourgeivou Politismou

stovn Tomeva th

ı Poli-

tikh

ı Klhronomia

ı. 3 vols. Athens, vol. 1: 1997; vol. 2; 1998; vol. 3; 1999.

Travlos J. Bildlexikon zur Topographie des Antiken Attika. Tübingen, Germany, 1988. See

pp. 26–33 for an updated bibliography of Athenian archaeology to 1985.

Travlos, J. Pictorial Dictionary of Athens. London, 1971.

Travlos, J. Poleodomikhv ΔExevli[xiı tw

n ΔAqhnw

n. Athens, 1960.

Wycherley, R. E. The Stones of Athens. Princeton, N.J., 1978.

ACROPOLIS

DESCRIPTION, HISTORY, AND SIGNIFICANCE

The Acropolis was the citadel of Athens, used as a place of refuge in hard times and as

the principal sanctuary of the city in Greek and Roman times (see figs. 2, 14, 52). A spine of

hard limestone, it rises steeply out of the surrounding plain to a height of about 150 meters

above sea level, and the only easy approach is from the west. The fortunes of Athens over

the centuries can often be read in the degree of accessibility to the Acropolis: broad ramps

and large gateways built in times of peace, additional walls, winding paths, bastions, tow-

ers, and small doorways in times of trouble. The area on top, fortified from the Bronze Age

to the nineteenth century, measures about 110 meters north to south by 250 meters east to

248 SITE SUMMARIES

239, 240, 241

Opposite, top 239. Model of the Acropolis from the northwest.

Opposite, bottom 240. Aerial view of the Acropolis from the west.

[To view this image, refer to

the print version of this title.]

[To view this image, refer to

the print version of this title.]

250 SITE SUMMARIES

west. Here in the Late Bronze Age

would have stood a palace, compa-

rable to the ones known from

Mycenae, Tiryns, and Pylos.

In the historical period the

Acropolis was given over to the

cult of Athena. Large Doric tem-

ples were built in her honor in the

sixth century b.c., along with

dozens of marble votive statues

and several small Doric buildings

of limestone (see figs. 25–29, 40,

41). All these were swept away

when the Persians burned the

Acropolis in 480/79 b.c. Even the

shattered fragments were re-

spected, however, having been

dedicated to the goddess, and

when the Athenians cleaned up the area, they carefully buried much of this Archaic mater-

ial, thereby preserving it (see figs. 42, 43, 52–54). In general, though broken, the Archaic

material is in better shape than the Classical, which suffered all the ill effects of prolonged

exposure and gradual disintegration. Much of the early material, buried and left undis-

turbed less than a century after it was made, still preserves some of the original painted dec-

oration.

In the fifth century the Acropolis became the focal point of the great Periklean re-

building program to replace the temples destroyed by the Persians (see figs. 76, 80). Under

the general direction of Pheidias, an army of architects, sculptors, masons, painters, and ar-

tisans built the Parthenon, the Propylaia, the temple of Athena Nike, and the Erechtheion

in the second half of the fifth century. These crowning achievements of Greek architecture

are what one still sees today, in some cases after several programs of restoration. A few

lesser monuments and sanctuaries no longer survive above the lowest courses. In the

southwest corner there was a sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia, and just east of that the

Chalkotheke, a large storeroom for bronze dedications and weapons. Dozens of statues

241. Drawing of the restored Acropolis

from the northwest.

[To view this image, refer to

the print version of this title.]

were dedicated out in the open, many of which survived to the Roman period and are de-

scribed in detail by Pausanias.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

General

Brouskari, M. The Acropolis Museum. Athens, 1974.

Brouskari, M. The Monuments of the Acropolis. Athens, 1997.

Bundgaard, J. The Excavations of the Athenian Acropolis, 1882–1890: The Original Drawings.

Copenhagen, 1974.

Bundgaard, J. Parthenon and the Mycenaean City on the Heights. Copenhagen, 1976.

Buschor, E. Die Tondacher der Akropolis. 2 vols. Berlin, 1929–1933.

Economakis, R. (ed.) Acropolis Restoration: The SSAM Interventions. London, 1994.

Graef, B., and E. Langlotz. Die antiken Vasen von der Akropolis zu Athens. Berlin, 1925–1933.

Harris, D. The Treasures of the Parthenon and Erechtheion. Oxford, 1995.

Heberdey, R. Altattische Porosskulptur. Vienna, 1919.

Hurwit, J. The Athenian Acropolis. Cambridge, 1998.

Iakovides, S. ÔH Mukhnai>khv ΔAkrovpoliı tw

n ΔAqhnw

n. Athens, 1962.

Jahn, O., and A. Michaelis. Arx Athenarum a Pausania Descripta. Bonn, 1901.

Kavvadias, P., and G. Kawerau. Die Ausgrabung der Akropolis. Athens, 1907.

Knell, H. Perikleische Baukunst. Darmstadt, Germany, 1979.

Payne, H. Archaic Marble Sculpture from the Acropolis. London, 1936.

Raubitschek, A. E. Dedications from the Athenian Akropolis. Cambridge, 1949.

Rhodes, R. Architecture and Meaning on the Athenian Acropolis. Cambridge, 1995.

Schneider, L., and C. Hocker. Die Akropolis von Athen. Cologne, 1990.

Schrader, H. (ed.) Die archaischen Marmorbildwerke der Akropolis. Frankfurt, 1939.

Wiegand, T. Die archaische Poros-Architektur der Akropolis zu Athen. Leipzig, 1904.

Notes

For the Chalkotheke, see L. LaFollette, “The Chalkotheke on the Athenian Acropolis,”

Hesperia 55 (1986), pp. 75–87. For the Temple of Roma and Augustus, see W. Binder, Der

Roma-Augustus Monopteros auf der Akropolis in Athen und sein Typologischer Ort (Stuttgart,

1969). For the Athena Promachos by Pheidias, see B. Pick, “Die Promachos des Pheidias

und die Kerameikos-Lampen,” Ath. Mitt. (1931), pp. 59–74, E. Harrison, “Preparations for

Marathon, the Niobid Painter, and Herodotus,” Art Bulletin (1972), pp. 390–402, and the

building accounts for nine years in IG I

435.

Athens 251

Parthenon

Brommer, F. Die Parthenon-Skulpturen: Metopen, Fries, Giebel, Kultbild. Mainz, 1979.

Korres. M., et al. Melevth ΔApokatastavsewı tou

Parqenw

noı. 5 vols. Athens, 1983–1994.

See especially vol. 1, pp. 171–197, for a bibliography.

Orlandos, A. K. ÔH ΔArcitektonikhv tou

Parqenw

noı. 3 vols. Athens, 1977–1978.

Tournikiotis, P. (ed.) The Parthenon and Its Impact on Modern Times. Athens, 1994.

Notes

All aspects of the sculptural program of the Parthenon continue to generate a huge

bibliography. For recent work and an overview since Brommer, see I. Jenkins, The Parthe-

non Frieze (British Museum, 1994). In particular, a recent suggestion has been made that

the central scene of the east frieze is not related to the Panathenaia but shows the prepara-

tions for the sacrifice of the daughter of Erechtheus (J. Connelly, “Parthenon and

Parthenoi: A Mythological Interpretation of the Parthenon Frieze,” AJA 100 [1996],

pp. 53–80), answered by Jenkins (The Parthenon Frieze) and by E. Harrison (“The Web of

History: A Conservative Reading of the Parthenon Frieze,” in Worshipping Athena, ed. J.

Neils [Madison, Wis., 1996], pp. 198–214). The work on the restoration of the Acropolis

monuments has led to several important joins and observations on the Parthenon sculp-

ture by A. Mantis. Other recent works on the sculpture include: B. Nagy, “Athenian Offi-

cials on the Parthenon Frieze,” AJA 96 (1992), pp. 55–69, M. C. Root, “The Parthenon

Frieze and the Apadana Reliefs at Persepolis,” AJA 89 (1985), pp. 102–122, K. Schwab,

“Parthenon East Metope XI: Herakles and the Gigantomachy,” AJA 100 (1996), pp. 81–90,

and K. Schwab, “The Parthenon Metopes and Greek Vase Painting” (Ph.D. diss., New York

University, 1988). For the inscription honoring Nero in 61/2, see A. Spawforth, “Symbol of

Unity? The Persian Wars Tradition in the Empire,” in Greek Historiography, ed. S. Horn-

blower (Oxford, 1994), pp. 233–237.

Propylaia

Bundgaard, J. A. Mnesicles, a Greek Architect at Work. Copenhagen, 1957.

DeWaele, J. The Propylaia of the Akropolis in Athens. Amsterdam, 1990.

Dinsmoor, W. B., Jr. The Propylaia to the Athenian Acropolis. Vol. 1: The Predecessors. Prince-

ton, N.J., 1980.

Eiteljorg II, H. The Entrance to the Athenian Acropolis Before Mnesicles. Boston, 1995.

Tanoulas, T., et al. Melevth ΔApokatastavsewı tw

n Propulaivwn. Athens, 1994.

252 SITE SUMMARIES

Notes

The arrangement and function of the Pinakotheke has continued to draw the atten-

tion of scholars. J. A. Bundgaard (Mnesicles, above) saw the arrangement as a reflection of

earlier structures; J. Travlos (Pictorial Dictionary of Athens [London, 1971], p. 482 and figs.

614, 618, and 619) and P. Hellstrom (“The Asymmetry of the Pinacotheca—Once More,”

Op. Ath. 11 [1975], pp. 87–92) have argued that the room served as a dining room. W. B.

Dinsmoor, Jr. (“The Asymmetry of the Pinakotheke—For the Last Time?”Hesperia Suppl.

20 [Princeton, N.J., 1982], pp. 18–33), has more plausibly explained the unusual form as be-

ing the result of the design and the use of modules in planning the building. For important

work on the Medieval entrance to the Acropolis and the resultant use and modifications of

the Propylaia, see T. Tanoulas, Tav Propuvlaia th

ı ΔAqhnai>kh

ı ΔAkropovlew~ katav tovn Me-

saivwna, 2 vols. (Athens, 1997; English summary in vol. 2, pp. 283–313; English transla-

tions of captions of figures and drawings are available free of charge from J. Binder, 54

Souidias St., Athens 10676, Greece).

Temple of Athena Nike

Brouskari, M. Tó Qwravkio tou

Naou

ı ΔAqhna

ı Nivkhı. Athens, 1999.

Carpenter, R. The Sculpture of the Nike Temple Parapet. Cambridge, 1929.

Mark, I. S. The Sanctuary of Athena Nike in Athens. Hesperia Suppl. 26. Princeton, N.J.,

1993.

Ziro, D. Melevth ΔApokatastavsewı tou

naou

ı ΔAqhna

ı Nivkhı. 2 vols. Athens, 1994.

Erechtheion

Herington, C. J. Athena Parthenos and Athena Polias. Manchester, U.K., 1955.

Papanikolaou, A., “The Restoration of the Erechtheion.” In R. Economakis (ed.) Acropolis

Restoration: The CCAM Interventions. London, 1994. Pp. 136–149.

Paton, J. M., et al. The Erechtheum. Cambridge, 1927.

Notes

“Erechtheion” is a modern name; in antiquity the building was known as the “old

temple,” “the temple in which there is the old statue,” or the “temple of Athena Polias.”

K. Jeppesen has argued that there were two separate buildings, one dedicated to Erech-

theus, one to Athena Polias. See K. Jeppesen, The Theory of the Alternate Erechtheion (Arhus,

Denmark, 1987), and N. Robertson, “Athena’s Shrines and Festivals,” in Worshipping

Athens 253

254 SITE SUMMARIES

Athena, ed. J. Neils (Madison, Wis., 1996), pp. 27–77. For remarks on the interior arrange-

ment see O. Palagia (“A Nike for Kallimachos’ Lamp?” AJA 88 [1984], pp. 515–521). For the

form of the early cult statue, see J. Kroll, “The Ancient Image of Athena Polias,” in Hesperia

Suppl. 20 (Princeton, N.J., 1982), pp. 65–76.

ACROPOLIS SLOPES

DESCRIPTION, HISTORY, AND SIGNIFICANCE

The lower slope of the Acropolis was ringed in antiquity by an ancient path known

as the peripatos. Above this walkway the terrain was covered with sanctuaries virtually all

the way around. The sanctuaries on the north slope are generally less substantial archi-

tecturally than those on the south, often confined to the shallow caves or to small open-

air areas in front of scarps into which niches have been carved. Here worshipers honored

Pan and the Nymphs (see fig. 112), Apollo Hypo Makrais (in the Roman period; see fig.

113), Aphrodite and Eros, Aglauros, and other unidentified deities. A portion of the

northwest slopes, and perhaps the whole area, was enclosed by an early (pre–fifth cen-

tury b.c.) circuit wall known as the Pelargikon. Within its circuit the Klepsydra spring

242. Model of the Acropolis from the southwest, with the buildings on the south slopes below. From

left to right: The Odeion of Herodes Atticus, the Stoa of Eumenes, the Asklepieion (behind), the

theater of Dionysos, and the Odeion of Perikles.

[To view this image, refer to

the print version of this title.]

(see fig. 68) offered an important source of water from late Neolithic times until the

nineteenth century.

More substantial sanctuaries claimed the sunny, welcoming south slopes (see fig. 114).

Here was the sanctuary of Dionysos, with its temples, stoa, odeion, and huge theater (see figs.

138–40), home to the great plays of early Western drama. Further west was the Asklepieion

(see fig. 149), the Athenian sanctuary of the primary healing deity of Greece, with its temple,

altar, and dormitory, along with hundreds of votives dedicated by suppliants whom the god

had healed. An inscription (IG II

4994) indicates that Hermes, Aphrodite, Pan, the Nymphs,

and Isis were all worshiped on the terrace to the west. Below was the long stoa built by King

Eumenes of Pergamon in the second century b.c. to provide shelter for the thousands attend-

ing the theater (see figs. 165, 166). Further west were several more small sanctuaries, to

Themis, Isis, and others, including one to Nymphe, who was closely associated with the rit-

ual of marriage. Among these stood the lavish Odeion (see fig. 211), or concert hall, given by

the local philanthropist Herodes Atticus in about a.d. 160. In late Roman times the southwest

slope below the Odeion of Herodes was covered with large private houses.

EXCAVATIONS

The slopes of the Acropolis have been excavated many times by various institutions.

The Klepsydra fountain and other monuments on the north slope were excavated by the

American School of Classical Studies in a series of campaigns during the 1930s. The sanc-

tuary of Dionysos and the theater were first excavated by the Greek Archaeological Society

in 1838, with further work carried out for most of the nineteenth century. The society also

excavated the sanctuary of Asklepios, in 1876–1877. Finally, the society cleared the Odeion

of Herodes in 1848–1858, while much of the rest of the south slope was excavated by the

Archaeological Service between 1955 and 1959. The Odeion of Perikles remains largely un-

excavated.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

North Slope

Broneer, O. “Excavations on the North Slope of the Acropolis.” Hesperia 6 (1937), pp. 161–

263.

Broneer, O. “Excavations on the Slopes of the Acropolis.” AJA 44 (1940), pp. 252–256.

Broneer, O. “A Mycenean Fountain on the Athenian Acropolis.” Hesperia 6 (1937), pp.

161–263.

Parsons, A. “Klepsydra and the Paved Court of the Pythion.” Hesperia (1943), pp. 191–267.

Athens 255

242

South Slope

Korres, M. Arch. Delt. 35 (1980), B, pp. 9–21.

Papathanasopoulos, Th. Mnhmei

a th

ı Novtiaı Pleura

ı th

ı Akrovpolhı. Athens, 1993.

Papathanasopoulos, Th. To Wdei

o tou

Peri

klh. Rhethymnon, 1999.

Walker, S. “A Sanctuary of Isis on the South Slope of the Athenian Acropolis.” BSA 74

(1979), pp. 243–279.

Aglaurion

Dontas, G. “The True Aglaurion.” Hesperia 53 (1983), pp. 48–63.

Asklepieion

Aleshire, S. The Athenian Asklepieion. Amsterdam, 1989.

Odeion of Herodes Atticus

Tobin, J. Herodes Atticus and the City of Athens. Amsterdam, 1997. Pp. 185–194.

Odeion of Perikles

Kotsidu, H. Die musischen Agone der Panathenäen in archaischer und klassischer Zeit. Mu-

nich, 1991.

Robkin, A. “The Odeion of Perikles.” Ph.D. diss., Univeristy of Washington, 1975.

Theater of Dionysos

Dörpfeld, W., and E. Reisch. Das griechische Theater. Athens, 1896.

Pickard-Cambridge, A. W. The Theater of Dionysus in Athens. Oxford, 1946.

Polacco, L. Il teatro di Dioniso Eleuterio ad Atene. Rome, 1990.

Townsend, R. “The Fourth-Century Skene of the Theater of Dionysos at Athens.” Hesperia

55 (1986), pp. 421–438.

Notes

The various uses of the Odeion of Perikles are described in the following ancient

sources: cavalry (Xenophon Hell. 2.4.8–10, 24); law court (Aristophanes Wasps 1107–1111,

Demosthenes Against Neaira, 52, 54); grain (Demosthenes Against Phormio 37); philoso-

256 SITE SUMMARIES

Athens 257

243

244, 245

phers (Diogenes Laertius 7.183–185, Plutarch Moral. 605.14 and 1033 D–E); and musical

contests (Plutarch Perikles 13.9–11).

AGORA

DESCRIPTION, HISTORY, AND SIGNIFICANCE

The Agora was a large open square on sloping ground northwest of the Acropolis

(see fig. 4). It was designed as the civic center of the town, and was reserved for gather-

ings of citizens for a variety of purposes: elections, processions, open-air markets, os-

tracisms, athletic events, and dramatic performances. Around its sides were set most of

the public buildings of the city (see fig. 30). These included the Bouleuterion (senate

building), the Metroon (archives), the magistrates’ offices, the law courts, and the mint.

Stoas—long, shady, colonnaded buildings—and fountain houses provided shelter and

refreshment for the throngs who met here on a daily basis. Statues and other memorials

reminded the Athenians of former military triumphs and the achievements of their pre-

decessors.

The Agora was laid out in its present location sometime in the sixth century b.c. (see

figs. 44, 59, 66), replacing an older civic center which lies several hundred meters to the

east, still awaiting excavation. Thereafter, its development ref lects the history of Athens,

showing signs of expansion in the fifth century (see fig. 121) and in the latter part of the

fourth century (see fig. 150), revival in the second century (see fig. 177), and a cultural f lo-

rescence in Roman times. Military interventions by the Persians in 480/79, the Romans

under Sulla in 86, the Herulians in a.d. 267, Alaric in 395/6, the Vandals in the 470s, and

the Slavs in 582/3 have all left their marks on the area.

The Agora receives special attention as the center of ancient Athens and thus the

place where Athenian democracy was first developed and practiced. Buildings represent-

ing all three branches of government—executive, legislative, and judiciary—have come to

light, along with numerous small objects used in the day-to-day running of the city: ballots,

allotment machines, archives, water clocks, tokens for payments, and sets of official

weights and measures. Of particular interest are the thousands of inscriptions (more than

7,500), which record a variety of information not available from other sources.

EXCAVATIONS

Parts of the Agora area were never completely buried: the Hephaisteion (Theseion),

the statues of the giants and tritons of the Odeion of Agrippa, and the ruins of the Stoa of