Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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0042 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning is caused by the

ingestion of shellfish containing thermostable toxins

(at least seven have been identified, including okadoic

acid, two dinophysitoxines and two pectenotoxins)

and causes gastrointestinal disorders in many parts of

the world. Dinoflagellates of the genera Dinophysis

and Aurocentrum produce the toxins responsible for

the illness within a time range of 30 min to a few

hours; no fatalities have ever been observed, and

patients recover in 3–4 days.

0043 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning is characterized by

incoordination, paralysis, and convulsions caused by

lipid-soluble toxins called ‘brevetoxins’. Gymnodi-

nium breve produces the toxins; the maximum per-

mitted level (MPL) is 80 mg of brevetoxin per 100 g of

flesh. No human deaths have been recorded.

0044 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning is caused by a water-

soluble toxin (domoic acid) that produces nausea,

headache, disorientation, and vomiting, but the

most characteristic symptom is the permanent loss

of short-term memory. The MPL is 20 p.p.m. domoic

acid, and poisoning may cause human death.

Toxins from bacterial activity

004 5 Scombroid Fish (Histamine) Poisoning is a chemical

intoxication following the ingestion of food contain-

ing high levels of histamine. Histamine is formed in

some fishery products by enzymatic decarboxylation

of histidine during the growth of certain spoilage bac-

teria that produce the enzyme histidinedecarboxylase,

such as certain Enterobacteriaceae, a few Clostridia

and Lactobacillus spp. The possible activity of en-

dogenous decarboxylase enzymes on free histidine

leading to histamine formation in fish muscle is not

well known. The most active histamine producers are

Morganella (Proteus) morganii, Klebsiella pneumo-

niae, and Hafnia alvei; these microorganisms can be

found in most fish, probably as a result of postharvest

contamination. The fish species involved are mostly

thosewithanaturalhigh content offreehistidine,such

as Scombrida spp., but also Clupeida spp. In fact, the

denomination ‘scombroid fish poisoning’ would be

better changed to ‘histamine poisoning.’ Histamine

concentrations of 10 mg per 100 g are considered

significant; 20 mg per 100 g is the maximum allow-

able level in the EU, 50 mg per 100 g is a hazard in the

USA Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and

100 mg per 100 g is generally considered toxic. The

incubation period between ingestion and the onset of

symptoms is rather short, from a few minutes to a few

hours. The most common symptoms are: tingling and

burning sensations in the mouth (peppery tasting),

gastrointestinal complaints, and a rash with itching.

The duration of the illness is also rather short, symp-

toms usually subsiding in a few hours.

0046Some evidence supports the hypothesis that certain

substances in spoiled fish may potentiate the toxicity

of histamine. Cadaverine and putrescine enhance the

toxicity of histamine probably by inhibiting endogen-

ous enzymes responsible for histamine detoxification.

Seealso: Coronary Heart Disease:EtiologyandRisk

Factor; Dietary Reference Values; Dietary

Requirements of Adults; Fats:Digestion,Absorption,

andTransport; Fatty Acids:Properties;Metabolism;

Gamma-linolenicAcid; Fish:FishasFood; Fish Farming;

Food Composition Tables; Minerals – Dietary

Importance; Protein:FoodSources;Requirements;

Shellfish:CommerciallyImportantCrustacea; Vitamins:

Overview

Further Reading

Ackman RG (1995) Composition and nutritive value of fish

and shellfish lipids. In: Ruiter A (ed.) Fish and Fishery

Products. Composition, Nutritive Properties and Stabil-

ity. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Exler J (1987, updated 1992) Composition of Foods: Fin-

fish and Shellfish Products, Human Nutrition Informa-

tion Service Agriculture Handbook 8–15. Washington,

DC: US Department of Agriculture.

Food and Drug Administration (1989) The Fish List, Food

and Drug Administration (FDA) Guide to Acceptable

Market Names for Food Fish Sold in Interstate Com-

merce 1988. Washington, DC: US Government Printing

Office.

Haard NF (1995) Composition and nutritive value of fish

proteinsandothernitrogencompounds.In:RuiterA(ed.)

Fish and Fishery Products. Composition, Nutritive Prop-

erties and Stability. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Holland B, Brown J and Buss DH (1993) Fish and fish

products. In: Supplement to the 5th edition of McCance

and Widdowson’s The Composition of Foods. London:

The Royal Society of Chemistry and Ministry of Agri-

culture, Fisheries and Food.

Huss HH (1994) Assurance of Seafood Quality, FAO Fish-

eries Technical Paper 334.

Huss HH (1995) Quality and Quality Changes in Fresh

Fish. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 348.

Lands WEM (1988) Fish and Human Health. Orlando, FL:

Academic Press.

Lovell RT (1989) Nutrition and Feeding of Fish. New York:

Van Nostrand Reinhold.

National Fisheries Institute at http://www.nfi.org.

Nettleton JA (1993) Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Health. New

York: Chapman & Hall.

New York Seafood Council at http://www.nyseafood.org.

Southgate DAT (2000) Meat, Fish, Eggs and Novel Protein.

In: Garrow JS, James WPT and Ralph A (eds) Human

Nutrition and Dietetics (10th edn). Edinburgh, UK:

Churchill Livingstone,

United States Department of Agriculture. Composition

of foods, available at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/food-

comp.

2478 FISH/Dietary Importance of Fish and Shellfish

FISH FARMING

A G J Tacon, Kaneohe, HI, USA

Background

0001 The term ‘fish farming’ is synonymous with the

term ‘fish culture’ or, more correctly, ‘aquaculture.’

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization

of the United Nations (FAO):

0002 the definition of aquaculture is understood to mean the

farming of aquatic animals, including fish, mollusks,

crustaceans and aquatic plants. Farming implies some

form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance

production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection

from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or

corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated. For

statistical purposes, aquatic organisms which are har-

vested by an individual or corporate body which has

owned them throughout their rearing period contribute

to aquaculture while aquatic organisms which are ex-

ploitable by the public as a common property resource,

with or without appropriate licenses, are the harvest of

fisheries. Aquaculture production specifically refers to

output from aquaculture activities, which are designated

for final harvest for consumption or other purposes such

as ornamental purposes.

0003 Fish farming is not new, with the first known

monograph on the subject appearing in China in the

fifth century bc with the publication of the ‘Treatise

on Fish Culture’ by Fan Li in 473 bc. Moreover,

ancient Egyptian pyramid bas-reliefs show fishing

scenes and fish raised in ponds, and archeological

sites attest to the fact that the Romans also reared

fish in ponds or ‘piscifactorias.’ However, with the

exception of China and the Asia and Pacific region,

where fish culture has always traditionally played an

important role as a provider of much needed food fish

for human consumption, it was not until the twenti-

eth century that aquaculture emerged on to the

global arena as a major food-production sector and

economic activity capable of rivaling the terrestrial

animal-livestock farming sector.

Farmed Species

0004 In marked contrast to terrestrial animal livestock

production systems, where farming is usually re-

stricted to the production of a handful of different

animal species (i.e., pigs, cattle, poultry, sheep) under

a relatively narrow range of habitats and farming

systems (i.e., grazing, mixed, and industrial farming

systems), aquaculture is more akin to agriculture in

the wide diversity of species cultivated and farming

systems employed. The 207 different animal and

plant species currently cultivated on a global basis

are listed in the following sections.

Fishes or Finfish (Pisces) (123 Species Reported

in 1998)

0005Freshwater fishes (73 reported species)

0006carps, barbels, and other cyprinids (24 species,

including: silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys

molitrix), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella),

common carp (Cyprinus carpio), bighead carp

(Aristichthys nobilis), crucian carp (Carassius car-

assius), roho labeo (Labeo rohita), catla (Catla

catla), mrigal carp (Cirrhinus mrigala), white

amur bream (Parabramis pekinensis), mud carp

(Cirrhinus mulitorella), black carp (Mylopharyn-

godon piceus) Thai silver barb (Puntius goniono-

tus), Java barb (Puntius javanicus), nilem carp

(Osteochilus hasselti), golden shiner (Notemigonus

crysoleucas), roach (Rutilus rutilus), goldfish (Car-

assius auratus), tench (Tinca tinca), hovens carp

(Leptobarbus hoeveni), pond loach (Misgurnus

anguillicaudatus), rudd (Scardinius erythrophthal-

mus), bleak (Alburnus alburnus), freshwater bream

(Abramis brama), rhinofishes (Labeo spp));

0007tilapias and other cichlids (12 species, including:

Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), Mozambique

tilapia (Oreochromis mossambica), blue tilapia

(Oreochromis aureus), three-spotted tilapia (O.

andersonil), redbreast tilapia (Tilapia rendalli),

longfin tilapia (Oreochromis macrochir), tilapia

(Oreochromis spilurus), redbelly tilapia (Tilapia

zillii), jaguar guapote (Cichlasoma managuensis),

blackbelt cichlid (Cichlasoma maculicauda),

yellow-belly bream (Serranochromis robustus),

velvety cichlids (Astronotus spp.);

0008miscellaneous freshwater species (37 species,

including channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus),

mandarin fish (Siniperca chuatsi), climbing

perch (Anabas testudineus), catfish, hybrid (Clarias

gariepinus Clarias macrocephali), snakeskin gou-

rami (Trichogaster pectoralis), piaractus/cachama

blanca (piaractus brachypomus), pangas catfish

(Pangasius pangasius), striped snakehead (Channa

striatus), giant gourami (Osphronemus goramy),

cachama (Colossoma macropomum), kissing gou-

rami (Helostoma temmincki), North African cat-

fish (Clarias gariepinus), Indonesian snakehead

(Channa micropeltes), Northern pike (Esox lucius),

FISH FARMING 2479

upside-down catfishes (Synodontis spp.), Wels cat-

fish (Silurus glanis), black bullhead (Ictalurus

melas), Asian redtail catfish (Mystus nemurus),

Snakehead (Channa argus), Philippine catfish

(Clarias batrachus), pike-perch (Stizostedion

lucioperca), largemouth black bass (Micropterus

salmoides), marble goby (Oxyeleotris marmorata),

netted prochilod (Prochilodus reticulatus), mudfish

(Clarias anguillaris), European perch (Perca fluvia-

tilis), bagrid catfish (Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus),

silver perch (Bidyanus bidyanus), Pacific fat sleeper

(Dormitator latifrons), dorada (Brycon moorei),

barred sorubim (Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum),

duckbill catfish (Sorubim lima), South American

catfish (Rhamdia sapo), knife fishes (Notopterus

spp.), African bonytongue (Heterotis niloticus),

Murray cod (Maccullochella peelii), golden perch

(Macquana ambigua)).

Diadromous fishes (18 Reported Species)

0009 sturgeons, paddlefishes (two species, including

Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser beeri), beluga (Huso

huso));

0010 river eels (three species, including Japanese eel (An-

guilla japonica), European eel (Anguilla anguilla),

Short finned eel (Anguilla australis));

0011 salmons, trouts, smelts (11 species, including At-

lantic salmon (Salmo salar), rainbow trout (Oncor-

hynchus mykiss), coho salmon (Oncorhynchus

kisutch), chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tsha-

wytscha), ayu sweetfish (Plecoglossus altivelis),

sea trout (Salmo trutta), Arctic char (Salvelinus

alpinus), brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), Euro-

pean whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus), chum

salmon (Oncorhynchus keta), grayling (Thymallus

thymallus));

0012 miscellaneous diadromous fishes (two species, in-

cluding milkfish (Chanos chanos), barramundi

(giant sea perch; Lates calcarifer));

Marine fishes (32 reported species)

0013 flounders, halibuts, soles (five species, including

bastard halibut (Paralichthys olivaceus), turbot

(Psetta maxima), other flatfishes (Pleuronecti-

formes), common sole (Solea vulgaris), Atlantic

halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus));

0014 cods, hakes, haddocks (one species, including At-

lantic cod (Gadus morhua));

0015 redfishes, basses, congers (18 species, including

Japanese seabream (Pagrus major), gilthead seab-

ream (Sparus auratus), European seabass (Dicen-

trarchus labrax), puffers (Tetraodontidae; species

not given), blackhead seabream (Acanthopagrus

schlegeli), mangrove red snapper (Lutjanus argenti-

maculatus), greasy grouper (Epinephelus tauvina),

sharpsnout seabream (Diplodus puntazzo), Russells

snapper (Lutjanus russelli), goldlined seabream

(Rhabdosargus sarba), areolate grouper (Epinephe-

lus areolatus), goldsilk seabream (Acanthopagrus

berda), red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus), goatfishes

(Upeneus spp.), white seabream (Diplodus sargus

sargus), rabbitfish (Siganus spp.), meager (Argyro-

somus regius), cabinza grunt (Isacia conceptionis));

0016jacks, mullets, sauries (seven species, including Jap-

anese amberjack (Seriola quinqueradiata), flathead

gray mullet (Mugil cephalus), Japanese jack mack-

erel (Trachurus japonicus), cobia (Rachycentron

canadum), silversides (Atherinidae), fourfinger

threadfin (Eleutheronema tetradactylum), snub-

nose pompano (Trachinotus blochii));

0017tunas, bonitos, billfishes (one species, southern

bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii)).

Crustaceans (Crustacea) – 26 Species Reported

in 1998

0018Freshwater crustaceans (nine reported species, in-

cluding giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosen-

bergii), Chinese river crab (Eriocheir sinensis), red

swamp crawfish (Procambarus clarkii), yabby

crayfish (Cherax destructor), red claw crayfish

(Cherax quadricarinatus), marron crayfish (Cherax

tenuimanus), Signal crayfish (Pacifastacus lenius-

culus), Danube crayfish (Astacus leptodactylus),

sawtooth caridina (Caridina denticulata));

0019Sea-spiders, crabs: (three reported species, including

Indo-Pacific swamp crab (Scylla serrata), blue crab

(Callinectes sapidus), swimcrabs (Portunus spp.));

0020Lobsters, spiny-rock lobsters (two reported species,

including longlegged spiny lobster (Panulirus long-

ipes), mud spiny lobsters (Panulirus polyphagus));

0021Shrimps, prawns (12 reported species, including giant

tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon), whiteleg shrimp

(Penaeus vannamei), fleshy prawn (Penaeus chi-

nensis), banana prawn (Penaeus merguiensis),

blue shrimp (Penaeus stylirostris), Indian white

prawn (Penaeus indicus), kuruma prawn (Penaeus

japonicus), akiami paste shrimp (Acetes japonicus),

other natantian decapods (Natantia), endeavor

shrimp (Metapenaeus endeavouri), common

prawn (Palaemon serratus), redtail prawn

(Penaeus penicillatus)).

Molluscs (Mollusca) (43 Species Reported in 1998)

0022Freshwater molluscs (one reported species, Japanese

corbicula (Corbicula japonica));

0023Abalones, winkles, conchs (three reported species,

including perlemoen abalone (Haliotis midae),

periwinkles (Littorina spp.), stromboid conch

(Strombus spp));

2480 FISH FARMING

0024 Oysters (nine reported species, including

Pacific cupped oyster (Crassostrea gigas), Ameri-

can cupped oyster (Crassostrea virginica), slipper

cupped oyster (Crassostrea iredalei), European flat

oyster (Ostrea edulis), Sydney cupped oyster (Cras-

sostrea commercialis), mangrove cupped oyster

(Crassostrea rhizophorae), shell-loving oyster

(Ostrea conchaphila), Chilean flat oyster (Ostrea

chilensis), hooded oyster (Saccostrea cuccullata));

0025 Mussels (10 reported species, including blue mussel

(Mytilus edulis), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus

galloprovincialis), New Zealand mussel (Perna

canaliculus), green mussel (Mytilus viridis), Korean

mussel (Mytilus coruscus), Chilean mussel (Mytilus

chilensis), South American rock mussel (Perna

perna), Australian mussel (Mytilus planulatus),

choro mussel (Choromytilus chorus), cholga

mussel (Aulocomya ater));

0026 Scallops, pectins (five reported species, including

yesso scallop (Pecten yessoensis), Peruvian calico

scallop (Argopecten purpuratus), great Atlantic

scallop (Pecten maximus), queen scallop (Chlamys

opercularis), Pacific calico scallop (Argopecten

ventricosus));

0027 Clams, cockles, arkshells (13 reported species, includ-

ingJapanese carpetshell (Ruditapesphilippinarum),

razor clams (Solen spp.), blood cockle (Anadara

granosa), northern quahog (Mercenaria merce-

naria), inflated ark (Scapharca broughtonil), pullet

carpet shell (Tapes pullastra), groved carpet shell

(Ruditapes decussatus), common edible cockle(Car-

dium edule), butter clam (Saxidomus giganteus),

donax clams (Donax spp), Pacific littleneck clam

(Prothaca staminea), striped venus (Venus gallina));

0028 Squids, cuttlefishes, octopuses (two reported species,

including octopuses (Octopus spp.), common

cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis)).

Miscellaneous Aquatic Animals (Four Species

Reported in 1998)

0029 Frogs and other Amphibians (One Reported Species,

frogs (Rana spp.));

0030 Turtles (one reported species, soft-shell turtle (Trio-

nyx sinensis));

0031 Sea squirts and other tunicates (one reported species,

red bait (Pyura stolonifera));

0032 Sea urchins and other echinoderms (one reported

species, sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus spp.)).

Aquatic Plants (classification: Plantae) (11 species

reported in 1998)

0033 Brown seaweeds (two reported species, including

Japanese kelp (Laminaria japonica), wakame

(Undaria pinnatifida));

0034Red seaweeds (seven reported seaweeds, including

laver (Porphyra tenera), eucheuma (Euchema cot-

tonii), gracilaria seaweeds (Gracilaria spp.), elk-

horn sea moss (Kappaphycus alvarezii), spiny

eucheuma (Euceuma denticulatum), gellidium sea-

weeds (Gellidium spp.), harpoon seaweeds (Aspar-

agopsis spp.));

0035Green seaweeds: (two reported seaweeds, including

green laver (Monostroma nitidum), caulerpa sea-

weeds (Caulera spp.)).

Farming Practices and Feeding Methods

0036As one would expect with the cultivation of over 200

different animal and plant species, farming practices

vary widely from region to region, country to coun-

try, species to species, and even for the same species.

To a large extent, farming practices are determined by

the ease of the culture of the target species, the aim of

the proposed farming activity (subsistence or cash

income), the economic unit value of the cultured

species (higher-value species facilitating the use of

higher-cost production methods), and the availability

of resources to the farmer; (the last including the

availability of water, land, seed and/or brood stock,

fertilizers, feed, cash, and finance).

0037Farming practices can be undertaken under a

variety of environmental conditions, including fresh-

water, brackish water, or marine waters. According

to the FAO, for statistical aquaculture purposes,

freshwater is meant to signify waters with a consist-

ently negligible salinity, brackish water is meant to

signify waters in which the salinity is appreciable but

not to a constant high level (enclosed coastal and

inland water bodies in which the salinity is greater

than freshwater but less than marine water are also

regarded as brackish), and marine is meant to signify

coastal and offshore waters in which the salinity is

maximal and not subject to significant daily and sea-

sonal variation.

0038Current aquaculture farm production methods

depend to a large extent upon the target species and

the availability of resources to the farmer, and may

range from the use of low-input (and consequently

low-output) extensive farming systems (equivalent to

‘grazing’ in terrestrial livestock production) to the use

of large-scale semiintensive and intensive industrial

farming systems (equivalent to ‘mixed’ and ‘indus-

trial’ livestock production systems). In general,

higher-value cash crop species such as salmon and

shrimp tend to be cultivated alone as a monoculture,

whereas lower-value staple food fish species such as

the Chinese carps tend to be cultivated together as a

polyculture of different species with complementary

rearing and feeding habits.

FISH FARMING 2481

0039 Farm production units can be broadly divided into

outdoor and indoor production systems and, in the

case of outdoor farming systems, may range from the

use of earthen or concrete/plastic lined ponds, artifi-

cial tanks or raceways, floating or submerged net

cages or fenced pen enclosures, poles or suspended

ropes and net bags, rice fields or managed large water

bodies (including reservoirs), to the use of indoor

tanks and raceways/ponds within closed water recir-

culated aquaculture production systems.

0040 Feeding methods employed by farmers range

widely from species to species and country to country,

depending upon the farm production unit employed

and availability of fertilizer and feed resources. In the

case of extensive pond-based farming systems where

animals are usually reared at low stocking densities

within large volumes of water, the growth of the

cultured species is usually entirely dependent upon

the consumption of live food organisms naturally

produced within the water body. Such in-situ feeding

practices are typical of existing farming systems for

aquatic plant and filter-feeding mollusc and finfish

species. By contrast, within semiintensive and inten-

sive farming systems, fertilizers and feeds are usually

externally provided either to augment the production

of natural food organisms within the culture system

(in the case of fertilizers) or as an exogenous direct

source of nutrients in the case of externally provided

feeds. Feeds may range from the use of fresh natural

food items such as agricultural byproducts and

animal food items (such as insects, worms, molluscs,

fish, slaughterhouse wastes within small-scale, or

backyard fish farming systems) to the use of farm-

made or industrially manufactured nutritionally

complete aquaculture feeds, the latter usually com-

posed of a combination of different processed plant

and animal-feed ingredient sources formulated so

as to approximate to the known dietary nutrient

requirements of the cultured target species. Such com-

plete diet feeding methods are typical of semiintensive

and intensive finfish and crustacean production

systems.

Global Aquaculture Production

0041 Aquaculture has been the world’s fastest growing

agricultural food production sector for over a decade,

with the sector growing at an annual percentage

rate (APR) of 11% since 1984, as compared with

3.1% for terrestrial farm animal meat production

and 0.8% for landings from wild harvested fisheries

over the same period. According to the latest statis-

tical information from the FAO, total global

aquaculture production in 1998 was reported as

39.4 million tonnes and valued at US$52.5 billion.

At a species group level, finfish contributed over half

of total aquaculture production by weight in 1998

(20 million tonnes or 50.8%), followed by mollusks

(9.1 million tonnes or 23.2%) and aquatic plants (8.5

million tonnes or 21.7%). The growth of the different

major specific groups over the past decade has been

rapid, with most groups exhibiting double digit

growth rates over the period 1984–1998, including

finfish (12.3% per year), mollusks (11.5% per year),

aquatic plants (7.7% per year), and crustaceans

(16.0% per year).

0042By culture environment, over half (54.1%) of

global aquaculture production originated from

marine or brackish coastal waters in 1998 (down

from 61.3% in 1984), as compared with 45.9% for

freshwater aquaculture production (up from 38.7%

in 1994), the average growth rate from 1984 to 1998

being highest for freshwater aquaculture production

(APR 12.5%), followed by brackishwater (APR

10.2%) and mariculture (APR 9.9%). The main

species groups reared in freshwater were finfish

(97.9%), crustaceans and finfish in brackish water

(56.8 and 35.1%, respectively), and mollusks and

aquatic plants in marine waters (46.4 and 44.2%,

respectively).

0043By region, Asia produced over 90.8% of global

aquaculture production by weight in 1998 (35.81

million tonnes), with mainland China standing

above all other countries with a reported total aqua-

culture production of 27.1 million tonnes or 68.6%

of global aquaculture production in 1998. Including

mainland China, all of the world’s top 10 aquaculture

producing nations were found in Asia in 1998, and

included India 2.03 million tonnes Japan 1.29 million

tonnes, Philippines 0.95 million tonnes, Indonesia

0.81 million tonnes, South Korea 0.80 million tonnes,

Bangladesh 0.58 million tonnes Thailand 0.57 mil-

lion tonnes, Vietnam 0.54 million tonnes, and North

Korea 0.48 million tonnes (these top 10 producing

countries representing 89.1% of global aquaculture

production by weight; Table 1). The next major

regions in terms of production by weight were Europe

(4.97% or 1.96 million tonnes: Norway 0.41 million

tonnes, Spain 0.31 million tonnes, France 0.27 mil-

lion tonnes, Italy 0.25 million tonnes, UK 0.14

million tonnes, Netherlands 0.12 million tonnes),

followed by South America (1.70% or 0.67 million

tonnes: Chile 0.36 million tonnes, Ecuador 0.15 mil-

lion tonnes, Brazil 0.095 million tonnes, Colombia

0.046 million tonnes), North America (1.66% or

0.65 million tonnes: USA 0.44 million tonnes,

Canada 0.090 million tonnes, Mexico 0.041 million

tonnes, Cuba 0.038 million tonnes), Africa (0.48%

or 0.19 million tonnes: Egypt 0.14 million

tonnes, Nigeria 0.020 million tonnes, Madagascar

2482 FISH FARMING

0.0069 million tonnes, South Africa 0.0052,

Zambia 0.0042 million tonnes), and Oceania

(0.36% or 0.14 million tonnes: New Zealand 0.094

million tonnes, Australia 0.028 million tonnes).

0044 By economic country grouping, approximately

90.0 and 82.2% of global aquaculture production in

1998 was produced within developing countries

(35.49 million tonnes). Moreover, whereas the de-

veloping country share of aquaculture production

has increased from 72.6% (7.37 million tonnes) of

total aquaculture production in 1984 to 90% (35.49

million tonnes) in 1998, the share of production from

developed countries has decreased from 27.4% (2.78

million tonnes) in 1984 to 10% (3.93 million tonnes)

in 1998. Aquaculture production within developing

countries has grown four times faster (12.8% per year

since 1984) than within developed countries (2.7%

per year since 1984).

0045 In general terms, aquaculture’s contribution

toward total world fishery landings has increased

threefold since 1984, aquaculture production increas-

ing from 10.15 million tonnes or 11.4% of total

fishery landings in 1984 to 39.43 million tonnes or

31.1% of total fishery landings in 1998. By continent,

aquaculture supplied 45.3% of total fisheries land-

ings in Asia (up from 21.1% in 1984), 10.9% of total

landings in Oceania (up from 3.7% in 1984),

10.2% in Europe (up from 6.9% in 1984), 8.0% in

North America (up from 4.5% in 1984), 5.7% in

South America (up from 0.5% in 1984), and 3.2%

in Africa (up from 0.9% in 1984).

Major Farmed Finfish and Crustacean

Species

0046Inland freshwater species currently form the bulk of

finfish aquaculture production (17.4 million tonnes or

86.6% of total finfish production), with diadromous

and marine finfish species constituting only 9.5 %

(1.9 million tonnes) and 3.9% (0.78 million tonnes)

of total finfish production (20.06 million tonnes) in

1998. On a species group level, the major cultivated

finfish species groups in 1998 can be listed as follows:

0047cyprinids (total production 14.14 million tonnes,

23 freshwater species reported in 1998; growth rate

over period 1984–98: 13.3% per year);

0048tilapia (total production 0.97 million tonnes, 12

freshwater species reported in 1998; growth rate

over period 1984–98: 13.4% per year);

0049catfish (total production 0.45 million tonnes, 12

freshwater species reported in 1998; growth rate

over period 1984–98: 10.2% per year);

0050salmonids (total production 1.29 million tonnes,

11 diadromous species reported in 1998; growth

rate over period 1984–98: 13.6% per year);

tbl0001 Table 1 Top producers in 1998: total aquaculture production

Country Production

(tonnes)

Production

Growth APR

(1984^98)

Growth

(1997^98)

Total value

(US$1000)

Unit value

(US$kg

1

)

China 27 071 942 68.6 þ16.2 þ12.7 25 449 016 0.94

India 2 029 619 73.8 þ11.2 þ9.0 2 222 789 1.09

Japan 1 290 486 77.1 þ0.5 3.7 4 126 039 3.20

Philippines 954 512 79.5 þ5.5 0.3 639 080 0.67

Indonesia 814 090 81.6 þ7.2 þ4.7 2 149 508 2.64

South Korea 796 632 83.6 þ1.2 23.4 766 268 0.96

Bangladesh 583 877 85.1 þ12.7 þ13.9 1 493 670 2.56

Thailand 569 577 86.5 þ13.0 þ3.1 1 806 795 3.17

Vietnam 537 870 87.9 þ12.3 þ5.7 1 356 724 2.52

North Korea 481 500 89.1 2.9 1.6 302 950 0.63

USA 445 123 90.2 þ2.4 þ1.5 781 069 1.75

Norway 408 862 91.3 þ23.6 þ11.3 1 133 580 2.77

Chile 361 430 92.2 þ33.3 3.6 1 001 544 2.77

Spain 313 518 93.0 þ1.8 þ31.1 282 208 0.90

France 273 920 93.7 þ2.7 4.7 614 156 2.24

Taiwan 255 205 94.3 þ0.3 5.5 818 395 3.21

Italy 249 625 94.9 þ7.5 þ15.2 471 139 1.89

Ecuador 146 590 95.3 þ12.0 þ8.3 731 299 4.99

Egypt 139 389 95.7 þ13.4 þ89.8 327 263 2.35

UK 137 421 96.0 þ17.1 þ5.9 427 895 3.11

Total world 39 430 834 100.0 þ11.0 þ9.4 52 458 185 1.33

Total aquaculture production (includes finfish, crustaceans, molluscs, miscellaneous aquatic animals/products, and aquatic plants).

Accumulative total as a percentage of the total world aquaculture production.

Annual percentage growth rate in production by weight between 1984 and 1998.

Percentage change in production by weight between 1997 and 1998.

FISH FARMING 2483

.0051 eels (total production 0.22 million tonnes, three

diadromous species reported in 1998; growth rate

over period 1984–98: 8.3% per year);

0052 milkfish (total production 0.37 million tonnes, one

diadromous species reported in 1998; growth rate

over period 1984–98: 0.3% per year);

0053 jacks/mullets (total production 0.20 million tonnes,

seven marine species reported in 1998; growth rate

over period 1984–98: 1.5% per year); and

0054 redfishes/basses (total production 0.20 million

tonnes, 16 marine species reported in 1998; growth

rate over period 1984–98: 16.1% per year).

In addition to the above finfish species group, the

major crustacean groups produced in 1998 were:

0055 marine shrimp (total production 1.11 million

tonnes, 71.2% of total crustacean production, 11

species reported in 1998, growth rate over period

1984–98: 15.4% per year); and

0056 freshwater crustaceans (total production 0.32 mil-

lion tonnes, 20.4% of total crustacean production,

nine species reported in 1998; growth rate over

period 1984–98: 15.7% per year).

Table 2 summarizes the top twenty cultivated finfish

and crustacean species in 1998.

Global Production by Feeding Habit and

Nutrient Supply

0057In terms of feeding habit and nutrient supply, global

aquaculture production in 1998 may be broadly

divided into six basic categories, reflecting primary

trophic behavior utilized by farmers, as follows:

0058photosynthetic aquatic plants: 8.57 million tonnes

or 21.7% of total aquaculture production,

examples including all brown, red, and green sea-

weeds;

0059filter-feeding mollusks: 9.14 million tonnes or

23.2% of total aquaculture production, major cul-

tivated species including oysters, mussels, scallops,

clams, and cockles;

tbl0002 Table 2 Top 25 finfish and crustacean aquaculture species in 1998

Species Production

(tonnes)

Production

(percentage

of world

total)

Growth

(APR,

1984^98)

Growth

increase

(%),1997^98

Major producing countries by weight

(percentage of totalspecies)

Silver carp

3 308 419 15.3 11.1 2.5 China 94.7, Bangladesh 2.9

Grass carp

2 894 017 28.7 19.1 6.7 China 97.0

Common carp

2 465 283 40.1 11.3 10.6 China 78.2, Indonesia 7.5, Egypt 2.0

Bighead carp

1 584 289 47.4 11.6 2.0 China 98.9

Osteichthyes

a,b

1 556 915 54.6 10.7 8.7 China 62.3, India 5.5, Bangladesh 4.3

Crucian carp

1 036 164 59.4 24.6 20.1 China 99.6

Nile Tilapia

793 931 63.1 21.0 7.1 China 66.2, Thailand 12.9, Philippines 7.6

Roho labeo

754 677 66.7 14.1 8.9 India 75.5, Bangladesh 12.6, Myanmar 11.3

Atlantic salmon

c,d

687 906 69.8 28.1 6.4 Norway 52.4, UK 16.1, Chile 15.6, Canada 7.2

Catla

628 757 72.7 12.9 8.8 India 87.5, Bangladesh 12.2

Giant tiger prawn

577 990 75.4 18.5 8.8 Thailand 41.5, Indonesia 17.9, Vietnam 15.1

Mrigal carp

560 556 78.0 15.3 8.7 India 92.8, Bangladesh 6.8

White amur bream

449 282 80.0 13.1 3.3 China 100

Rainbow trout

c,d

438 013 82.1 6.8 2.5 Chile 17.1, Italy 10.9, Norway 10.7, France 10.2

Milkfish

369 003 83.8 0.3 0.4 Philippines 44.0, Indonesia 40.1, Taiwan 15.8

Osteichthyes

d,f

335 620 85.3 28.8 16.3 China 91.4, South Korea 4.4, Japan 2.1

Channel catfish

256 129 86.5 6.8 7.5 USA 99.9

Japanese eel

c,d

206 773 87.5 8.1 4.4 China 78.9, Japan 10.6, Taiwan 8.3

White leg shrimp

191 009 88.4 14.4 13.0 Ecuador 67.8, Mexico 12.4, Panama 4.7, Belize 3.9

Mud carp

160 092 89.1 12.1 6.7 China 99.9

Black carp

a,d

153 633 89.8 11.7 10.8 China 99.4

Japanese amberjack

d,f

147 115 90.5 0.4 6.2 Japan 99.8

Fleshy prawn

143 932 91.2 6.7 37.8 China 99.4

Giant river prawn

130 313 91.8 21.9 19.5 China 47.5, Bangladesh 36.8, Taiwan 6.2

Chinese river crab

123 249 92.3 22.4 China 99.9

Freshwater finfish.

Miscellaneous freshwater fishes (species not given).

Diadromous finfish.

Carnivorous finfish.

Crustaceans.

Miscellaneous marine fishes (species not given).

2484 FISH FARMING

.0060 filter-feeding finfishes: 5.52 million tonnes or

14.0% of total aquaculture production, major cul-

tivated species including silver carp, bighead carp,

and catla;

0061 herbivorous/omnivorous finfishes: 12.0 million

tonnes or 30.4% of total aquaculture production;

major cultivated species including grass carp,

common carp, crucian carp, Nile tilapia, rohu,

mrigal carp, white amur bream, milkfish, channel

catfish, and mud carp;

0062 benthophagic omnivorous scavenging crustaceans:

1.56 million tonnes or 3.9% of total aquaculture

production; major cultivated species including

giant tiger prawn, whiteleg shrimp, fleshy prawn,

banana prawn, giant river prawn, Chinese river

crab, marine crabs, and crayfish; and

0063 carnivorousfinfishes: 2.53 million tonnesor 6.4% of

total aquaculture production; major cultivated

species including Atlantic salmon, rainbow trout,

Japanese eel, Japanese amberjack (yellowtail),

black carp, Japanese seabream, coho salmon, Man-

darinfish,gilthead seabream, andEuropeanseabass.

In terms of nutrient supply, it can be seen from the

above trophic classification that nearly half (i.e.,

17.71 million tonnes or 44.9%) of global aquaculture

production in 1998 was based on the production of

marine plants and mollusks within extensively man-

aged farming systems, receiving little or no supple-

mentary nutrient inputs (i.e., in the form of inorganic

and/or organic fertilizers). Similarly, over a quarter of

total finfish production (i.e., 5.52 million tonnes or

27.5% total finfish production) was based on

the production of filter-feeding finfish species, these

species usually being reared within extensive/semi-

intensively managed farming systems (i.e., within

earthen ponds, pen enclosures, rice fields, or small

water bodies) as a polyculture of mixed finfish species

at low (extensive) to moderate (semiintensive)

stocking densities, with finfish growth being depend-

ent upon the filtration of live/suspended food organ-

isms/nutrients from the water body (the production of

the latter being augmented or not through the appli-

cation of supplementary nutrient inputs in the form of

fertilizers).

0064 In marked contrast, the production of the

remaining finfish (14.53 million tonnes or 72.5%

total finfish production) and crustacean species

(1.56 million tonnes) is almost entirely based on the

provision of exogenously supplied nutrient inputs in

the form of either industrially compounded nutrition-

ally complete aquafeeds (or, to a lesser extent, natural

food items of high nutrient value such as ‘trash

fish’) or supplementary farm-made aquafeeds (often

in combination with fertilization). Interestingly,

carnivorous finfish species (2.53 million tonnes) rep-

resented 12.6% of total farmed finfish production in

1998, including 72.9% of total finfish production in

developed countries (1.35 million tonnes from a total

of 1.85 million tonnes) and 6.45% of total finfish

production in developing countries (1.17 million

tonnes from a total of 18.19 million tonnes).

Food Supply and Concluding Remarks

0065In terms of per caput availability of ‘food fish’ from

aquaculture (i.e., the production of farmed aquatic

finfish and shellfish on a whole live-weight basis, and

excluding farmed aquatic plants; 30.86 million

tonnes in 1998) this has increased by 261% from

1.45 kg in 1984 to 5.23 kg in 1998, with supply

growing at an average rate of 10.4% per year. By

contrast, the per caput availability of ‘food fish’

from capture fisheries (i.e., 62.45 million tonnes,

excludes captured fish destined for reduction into

fishmeal) has remained static, decreasing from

10.88 kg in 1984 to 10.58 kg in 1998. On the basis

of the above data, over 33.1% of global ‘food fish’

supplies was supplied by aquaculture in 1998. In

terms of total farmed meat production, aquaculture

currently ranks fourth in terms of global farmed meat

production (19.5 million tonnes in 1998; after gut-

ting/shelling), with pig first (88.0 million tonnes),

beef and veal second (55.3 million tonnes), and

chicken third (52.1 million tonnes). In general, the

main factor driving the apparent high demand for

staple food fish, and in particular of low-value farmed

freshwater food fish species feeding low on the aqua-

tic food chain, within most developing countries is

their greater affordability to the poorer segments of

the community, including the rural poor, compared

with other animal-protein sources.

0066With the global population now exceeding 6 bil-

lion, there is a growing trend toward increased com-

petition between users or stakeholders, including

both the agricultural and nonagricultural sectors, for

available resources, including land, energy/fossil

fuels, water, and nutrient sources. As a consequence

of this, there is also a trend within animal husbandry

(including aquaculture) toward the intensification of

farming systems and increased livestock/aquaculture

production per unit area/time, as well as an increasing

trend toward the vertical integration of animal and

feed production systems so as to reduce risks and

minimize production costs. It follows, therefore,

that if aquaculture is to sustain its current growth

into the third millennium farming systems should

become increasingly more efficient in terms of

resource use and have little or no adverse impacts

on society and the environment.

FISH FARMING 2485

See also: Marine Foods: Production and Uses of Marine

Algae; Shellfish: Commercially Important Crustacea;

Commercially Important Molluscs