Bulmer-Thomas V., Coatsworth J., Cortes-Conde R. The Cambridge Economic History of Latin America: Volume 2, The Long Twentieth Century
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
P1: GDZ
0521812909bbs CB929-Bulmer 052181290 9 September 30, 2005 16:39
702 Bibliographical Essays
The discussion about Latin American countries experiencing unlimited supplies
of labor along the lines of Lewis’s model of economic development can be found in
Nathaniel Leff, Underdevelopment and Development in Brazil. Economic Structure
and Change, 1822–1947, 2 vols. (London, 1982); and Carlos D
´
ıaz Alejandro, Essays
on the Economic History of the Argentine Republic (New Haven, CT, 1970)(Spanish
translation, Ensayos sobre historia econ
´
omica argentina [Buenos Aires, 1975]), for
Brazil and Argentina, respectively. The same argument can be found in Roberto
Cort
´
es Conde, El progreso econ
´
omico argentino, 1880–1914 (Buenos Aires, 1979).
Foradifferent view, see Hatton and Williamson, “Latecomers to Mass Migration:
The Latin Experience,” in Timothy J. Hatton and Jeffrey G. Williamson, Migra-
tion and the International Labor Market, 1850–1939 (New York, 1994), 5–71.Lewis’
seminal work is W. Arthur Lewis, Growth and Fluctuations, 1870-1913 (London,
1978).
General studies about Latin American economic development in the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries include chapters or references to labor and immigration.
SeeVictor Bulmer-Thomas, The Economic History of Latin America Since Inde-
pendence, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, 2003); Leslie Bethell, ed., The Cambridge History
of Latin America,vol. 4,c.1870–1930 (Cambridge, 1986), particularly chapters by
James R. Scobie on urbanization in Latin America, 1870–1930;Manuel Moreno
Fraginals on the economy and society in Caribbean plantations; William Glade,
on Latin America and the international economy; and Nicol
´
as S
´
anchez-Albornoz
on the evolution of Latin American population. A seminal work for population
in Latin America is Nicol
´
as S
´
anchez-Albornoz, The Population of Latin America:
AHistory (Berkeley, CA, 1974).
Magnus M
¨
orner, Adventurers and Proletarians. The Story of Migrants in Latin
America (Paris, 1985), is a classical and general study on immigration in Latin
America. See also Boris Fausto, ed., FazeraAmerica: a immigrac¸aoemmassa para a
America Latina (Sao Paulo, 2000). Very useful as a bibliographical guide is Oliver
Marshall, European Immigration and Ethnicity in Latin America: A Bibliography
(London, 1991).
Research on migration in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries is very much
biased toward the United States and it is not so easy to find references to Latin
American countries (Argentina being the exception) in the general accounts of
European migrations. Rudolph J. Vecoli and Suzanne M. S. Sinke, eds., ACentury of
European Migrations,1830–1930 (Chicago, 1991), includes the classicalessay by Frank
Thistlewhite, “Migration from Europe Overseas in the Nineteenth and Twentieth
Century,” presented at the Eleventh International Congress of Historical Sciences
in Stockholm in 1960. This author was the first in claiming against the American-
centeredness of migration studies and was praised for the inclusion of destinations
other than the United States. The emphasis was also in favor of a “more European”
and micro approach to European emigration from the point of view of villages
and towns. John D. Gould is another exception in considering destinations other
than the United States in his series of three articles on European emigration in the
Journal of European Economic History (“European Inter-Continental Emigration,
1815–1914:Patterns and Causes” 8, 3 (1979), 593–679;“European Inter-Continental
Emigration. The Road Home: Return Migration from the USA” 9, 1 (1980), 41–
113;and “European Inter-Continental Emigration: The Role of ‘Diffusion’ and
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
P1: GDZ
0521812909bbs CB929-Bulmer 052181290 9 September 30, 2005 16:39
Bibliographical Essays 703
‘Feedback’” 9, 2 (1980), 267–317.Gould’s survey of the major problems in the
study of emigration is still useful as a starting reading for those interested in
migration. However, the basic reading to understand the causes and consequences
of migration movements is Timothy J. Hatton and Jeffrey G. Williamson, The
AgeofMass Migration. Causes and Economic Impact (New York, 1998). It is a
fundamental text on the determinants of European emigration and the economic
effects in the receiving countries, particularly in the United States but with very
illuminating insights on Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil. Also useful is the collective
volume edited by Timothy J. Hatton and Jeffrey G. Williamson, Migration and
the International Labor Market, 1850–1939 (New York, 1994), particularly chapters
by Alan M. Taylor, “Mass Migration to Distant Southern Shores. Argentina and
Australia,1870–1939,” 91–118; and Riccardo Faini andAlessandra Venturini, “Italian
Emigration in the Pre-War Period,” 72–90.
Although research has been focused on the main receiving countries, there are
some references useful to study the efforts of other Latin American countries to
attract foreign immigration and the era of the European colonies in the central
decades of the nineteenth century. Joseph W. Fretz, Immigrant Group Settlement
in Paraguay (North Newton, KS, 1962)isone example. There is a special issue of
the Jahrbuch f
¨
ur Geschichte von Staat, Wirtschaft und Geselleschaft Lateinamerikas,
13 (1976), dedicated to Latin America immigration that includes articles on less
known countries of emigration to Latin America such as Russia, Scandinavia, and
the Welsh and French colonies in Patagonia. Italian colonies in Argentina are
carefully studied by Ezequiel Gallo, La pampa gringa. La colonizaci
´
on agr
´
ıcola en
Santa F
´
e, 1870–1895 (Buenos Aires, 1983).
The study of the transition from African slavery to free European immigration
in Latin America has been the object of many articles and monographs. The classic
study is by David Eltis, “Free and Coerced Transatlantic Migrations: Some Com-
parisons,” American Historical Review 88, 2 (1983), 251–80, and his book, Economic
Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (New York, 1987). Herbert
Klein, The Atlantic Slave Trade (Cambridge, 1999), includes some very useful chap-
ters on the transition from slavery to free labor in Brazil. David W. Galenson, “The
Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic Analysis,”
Journal of Economic History XLIV, 1 (1984), 1–26, explores the reasons why inden-
tured servitude declined in the United States while it reappeared in the Caribbean
and South America in the early twentieth century. Pieter C. Emmer and Magnus
M
¨
orner, eds., European Expansion and Migration. Essays on the Intercontinental
Migration from Africa, Asia and Europe (New York, 1992), includes useful chapters
on emigration from Western Africa and Chinese and indentured East Asian labor
in the Caribbean.
For the Caribbean, see also Manuel Moreno Fraginals, Frank Moya Pons,
and Stanley J. Engerman, Between Slavery and Free Labor. The Spanish Speak-
ing Caribbean in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1985), and Rebecca J. Scott,
Slave Emancipation in Cuba. The Transition to Free Labor, 1860–1899 (Princeton,
NJ, 1985).
Forthe major countries of origin of immigrants to Latin America, there are
several monographs: Ercole Sori, L’emigrazione italiana dall’Unit
`
a alla seconda
Guerra mondiale (Bolonia, 1979), for Italy; Blanca S
´
anchez-Alonso, Las causas de
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
P1: GDZ
0521812909bbs CB929-Bulmer 052181290 9 September 30, 2005 16:39
704 Bibliographical Essays
la emigraci
´
on espa
˜
nola, 1880–1930 (Madrid, 1995) (also the article “Those Who
Left and Those Who Stayed Behind: Explaining Emigration from the Regions of
Spain, 1880–1914,” Journal of Economic History 60, 3 [2000], 730–55) for Spain; and
Joachim Costa Leite, “Portugal and Emigration, 1855–1914,” (Ph.D. dissertation,
Columbia University, 1993).
Section II
Immigration policies in LatinAmerica havebeen studied from national perspectives
and there is not any comparative study. Ashley Timmer and Jeffrey G. Williamson,
“Immigration Policy Prior to the 1930s: Labor Markets, Policy Interactions, and
Globalization Backlash,” Population and Development Review 24, 4 (1998), 739–
71 include Argentina and Brazil in their index of migratory policies in the New
World. James Foreman-Peck also provides a general analysis of immigration policies
(James Foreman-Peck, “A Political Economy Model of International Migration,
1815–1914,” The Manchester School 60, 4 [1992], 359–76).
A basic reading on legislation and immigration policies for Southern Cone
countries is Hern
´
an A. Silva, ed., Legislaci
´
on y pol
´
ıtica inmigratoria en el cono
sur de Am
´
erica: Argentina, Brasil, Uruguay (M
´
exico, 1987). Both Argentinean and
Brazilian policies have received special attention, particularly the Brazilian pro-
gram of subsidized immigration. See Thomas H. Holloway, “Creating the Reserve
Army? The Immigration Program of Sao Paulo, 1886–1930,” International Migra-
tion Review 22, 2 (1978), 187–209;Holloway, Immigrants on the Land. Coffee and
Society in S
˜
ao Paulo, 1886–1934 (Chapel Hill, 1980); and Fernando J. Devoto,
“Pol
´
ıticas migratorias argentinas y flujo de poblaci
´
on europea, 1876–1925,” in F.
Devoto, ed., Estudios sobre la emigraci
´
on italiana a la Argentina en la segunda mitad
del siglo XIX (Napoli, 1991). See also Chiara Evangelista, La braccia per la fazenda:
immigrati e “caipiras” nella formazione del mercato di lavoro paulista (1850–1930)
(Milan, 1982), for an interesting comparison on the distortion in the immigra-
tion flow caused by Brazilian subsidies. The short-lived Argentinean program for
subsidizing immigration in the late 1880sisanalyzed by M. Silvia Ospital, “La
inmigraci
´
on subsidiada y las oficinas de informaci
´
on, 1887–1890,” in Jornadas de
Inmigraci
´
on (Buenos Aires, 1985), 441–56.
The consequences of different immigration policies for the receiving countries
are analyzed by Alan M. Taylor, “Mass Migration to Distant Southern Shores.
Argentina and Australia, 1870–1939,” (previously cited); and Alan M. Taylor,
“External Dependence, Demographic Burden and Argentine Economic Devel-
opment After the Belle Epoque,” Journal of Economic History 52 (1992), 907–36,
comparing Argentina and Australia.
For comparisons with the United States and Australian policies, see Claudia
Goldin, “The Political Economy of Immigration Restriction in the United States,
1890 to 1921,” in Claudia Goldin and Gary Libecap, eds., The Regulated Economy,
AHistorical Approach to Political Economy (Chicago, 1994), 223–57;Roger Daniels
and Otis L. Graham, Debating American Immigration, 1882–Present (Lanham, MD,
2001); and David Pope, “Population and Australian Economic Development,
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
P1: GDZ
0521812909bbs CB929-Bulmer 052181290 9 September 30, 2005 16:39
Bibliographical Essays 705
1900–1930,” in R. Maddock and I. W. McLean, eds., The Australian Economy
in the Long Run (Cambridge, 1987), 33–60.
Blanca S
´
anchez-Alonso, “European Emigration in the Late Nineteenth Century:
The Paradoxical Case of Spain,” Economic History Review 52, 2 (2000), 309–29,ana-
lyzes the effects of monetary and protectionist policies in Spain and their impact in
the timing and volume of Spanish emigration. Roberto Cort
´
es Conde, “Migraci
´
on,
cambio agr
´
ıcola y pol
´
ıticas de protecci
´
on. El caso argentino,” in Nicol
´
as S
´
anchez-
Albornoz, ed., Espa
˜
noles hacia Am
´
erica. La emigraci
´
on en masa, 1880–1930 (Madrid,
1988), 235–48, also discusses the effects of protectionist policies for agriculture
in Spain and their effects on the migratory flow. For Portuguese policy and reg-
ulations, see Joachim Costa Leite, “Emigrac¸ao portuguesa; a lei e os numeros
(1855–1914),” Analise Social, 23, 97 (1987), 463–80; and Miriam Halpern Pereira, A
pol
´
ıtica portuguesa de emigrac¸
ˆ
ao, 1850–1930 (Lisbon, 1981).
Section III
Information about occupation and demographic characteristics of migrants can
be found in the official statistics of each country of immigration and official
population censuses. The analysis of passenger-ship lists has been hardly explored
for the Latin American case, in contrast with research done for the United States
and Australia. There is an extensive literature for the main immigration country,
Argentina, followed by research done on Brazil, Uruguay, and Cuba.
A classical study of immigration in Argentina using the censuses material is
Gino Germani, Estructura social de la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1955). See also Gino
Germani, “Mass Immigration and Modernization in Argentina,” in I. L. Horowitz,
Masses in Latin America (New York, 1970), 289–331.Fernando Devoto, Historia
de la inmigraci
´
on en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 2003)isthe most recent title on
inmigration in Argentina.
Roberto Cort
´
es Conde, El progreso argentino, 1880–1914 (Buenos Aires, 1979),
is a classical reference on Argentinean economic growth and one of the pioneers
in analyzing immigration from a modern economic perspective. It is also one of
the first, with Ezequiel Gallo, La Pampa Gringa. La colonizaci
´
on agr
´
ıcola en Santa
F
´
e, 1870–1895 (Buenos Aires, 1983), in challenging the traditional view about the
inability of immigrants in Argentina to access landownership. For the traditional
view, see James R. Scobie, Revolution on the Pampas: A Social History of Argentine
Wheat (Austin, TX, 1964). The more recent approach to the topic of latifundia
versus the tenancy system in agriculture is Alan M. Taylor, “Latifundia as a Male-
factor in Economic Development? Scale, Tenancy and Agriculture on the Pampas,
1880–1914,” Research in Economic History 17 (1997), 261–300.Ageneral and com-
parative picture of Argentine agricultural development can be found in Jeremy
Adelman, Frontier Development: Land, Labour and Capital on the Wheatlands of
Argentina and Canada, 1890–1914 (Oxford, 1994).
For the impact of immigration in Brazil, and more specifically in the state of
S
˜
ao Paulo, there are general and useful titles such as Thomas W. Merrick and
Douglas H. Graham, Population and Economic Development in Brazil, 1800 to the
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
P1: GDZ
0521812909bbs CB929-Bulmer 052181290 9 September 30, 2005 16:39
706 Bibliographical Essays
Present (Baltimore, 1979); and Warren Dean, The Industrialization of S
˜
ao Paulo,
1880–1945 (Austin, 1969), for the absorption of the immigrant labor force in the
industrial labor market. Among the most important studies for Brazilian economic
development are Nathaniel Leff, Underdevelopment and Development in Brazil.
Economic Structure and Change, 1822–1947,vol. I (London, 1982). A summary of
Leff’s main arguments can be read in his chapter, “Economic Development in
Brazil, 1822–1913,” in Stephen Haber, ed., How Latin America Fell Behind. Essays
on the Economic Histories of Brazil and Mexico, 1800–1914 (Stanford, CA, 1997),
34–64. Thomas H. Holloway, Immigrants on the Land. Coffee and Society in S
˜
ao
Paulo, 1886–1934 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1980), is the classical study for immigration in
the coffee areas in Brazil.
ForCuba, see Abel F. Losada, Cuba: poblaci
´
on y econom
´
ıa entre la independencia
ylarevoluci
´
on (Vigo, 1999); and Jos
´
eLuis Luz
´
on, Econom
´
ıa, poblaci
´
on y territorio
en Cuba (1899–1983) (Madrid, 1987).
Although not dealing directly with immigration, an important title for Uruguay
is Luis Bertola, Ensayos de historia econ
´
omica: Uruguay y la regi
´
on en la econom
´
ıa
mundial, 1870–1990 (Montevideo, 2000). In the collective volume edited by Nicol
´
as
S
´
anchez-Albornoz, Espa
˜
noles hacia Am
´
erica. La emigraci
´
on en masa, 1880–1930 (pre-
viously cited), the first part is dedicated to the regional origins of Spanish emigrants
and the second includes very useful chapters on some Latin American countries
of destination for immigrants: Argentina, Brazil, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Mexico.
Also useful is Nicol
´
as S
´
anchez-Albornoz, ed., Poblaci
´
on y mano de obra en Am
´
erica
Latina (Madrid, 1985), with interesting chapters on the Uruguayan labor mar-
ket by Juan Rial, and the Brazilian labor market by Chiara Evangelista and Jos
´
e
Souza-Martins.
In the last years, a growing number of titles on Spanish immigration have
balanced the research done for the Italians in Latin America. Among others, it
is useful to consult Herbert S. Klein, La inmigraci
´
on espa
˜
nola en Brasil (Gij
´
on,
1996)(Portuguese translation, A imigrac¸ao espa
˜
nola do Brasil [S
˜
ao Paulo, 1994]);
Blanca S
´
anchez Alonso, La inmigraci
´
on espa
˜
nola en Argentina. Siglos XIX y XX
(Gij
´
on, 1992); Jordi Maluquer de Motes, Naci
´
on e inmigraci
´
on: los espa
˜
noles en
Cuba (siglos XIX y XX) (Gij
´
on, 1992); and Abel F. Losada, “The Cuban Labor
Market and Immigration from Spain, 1900–1930,” Cuban Studies 25 (1995), 147–
64. Carlos Zubillaga, ed., Espa
˜
noles en el Uruguay: caracter
´
ısticas demogr
´
aficas, socials
y econ
´
omicas de la inmigraci
´
on masiva (Montevideo, 1997); and Clara E. Lida, ed.,
Una inmigraci
´
on privilegiada. Comerciantes, empresarios y profesionales espa
˜
noles en
M
´
exico en los siglos XIX y XX (Madrid, 1994) for a less well-known case such as
Mexico.
Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers. Spanish Immigration in Buenos Aires, 1850–
1930 (Berkeley, CA, 1998), analyzes occupational and personal characteristics of
Spaniards in the city of Buenos Aires with a great variety of sources: national
and municipal censuses, mutual-aid societies’ records, and literary sources among
others. Mark D. Szuchman was one of the first in studying a Spanish community
in Argentina in Mobility and Integration in Urban Argentina. Cordoba in the Liberal
Era (Austin, TX, 1980).
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
P1: GDZ
0521812909bbs CB929-Bulmer 052181290 9 September 30, 2005 16:39
Bibliographical Essays 707
William A. Douglass and Jon Bilbao, Amerikanuak: Basques in the New World
(Reno, NV, 1975), deals mostly with the United States but includes a chapter on
Basque immigration in Latin America.
Following the pioneer work written in 1919 by Robert F. Foerster, The Italian
Emigration of Our Times (Cambridge, MA, 1919), the study of the Italian migratory
experience in the New World has generated a substantial literature. For a general
view, see Emilio Franzina, GliItaliani al nuovo mondo: l’emigrazione italiana in
America, 1492–1942 (Milan, 1995).
In Argentina, Fernando J. Devoto and a group of scholars around him have
specialized in the study of the Italian community. The journal Estudios Migratorios
Latinoamericanos is a basic reference for articles on immigration in Argentina and
in other Latin American countries. Among other titles, see Fernando J. Devoto
and Gianfausto Rosoli, eds., La inmigraci
´
on italiana en la Argentina (Buenos
Aires, 1985); and Fernando J. Devoto and Gianfausto Rosoli, eds., L’Italia nella
societ
´
a argentina (Roma, 1988). See also Maria Cristina Cacopardo y Jos
´
eLuis
Moreno, “Caracter
´
ısticas demogr
´
aficas y ocupacionales de los migrantes italianos
hacia Argentina, 1880–1930,” Studie Emigrazione 21, 75 (1984), 277–92; and Mario
Mascimbene, Historia de los italianos en la Argentina, 1835–1920 (Buenos Aires,
1986), with comparative data on Spanish and Italian immigration. For Italian
immigration in Uruguay, Fernando J. Devoto et al., L’emigrazione italiana e la for-
mazione dell’Uruguay moderno (Torino, 1993). Italians in Brazil have been studied,
among others, by Angelo Trento, Do outro lado do Atl
ˆ
antico: um seculo de imigrac¸ao
italiana no Brazil (S
˜
ao Paulo, 1989).
Avery fruitful line of research has been the comparative studies between the Ital-
ians in Argentinaand in the United States. Samuel Baily has been the leading scholar
in this field: Samuel L. Baily, “Marriage Patterns and Immigrant Assimilation in
Buenos Aires 1882–1923,” Hispanic American Historical Review 60 (1980), 32–48;
Samuel L. Baily, “Patrones de residencia de los italianos en Buenos Aires y Nueva
York,” Estudios Migratorios Latinoamericanos 1, 1 (1985), 8–47.Particularly impor-
tant is his book, Immigrants in the Land of Promise: Italians in Buenos Aires and New
York City, 1870 to 1914 (Ithaca, NY, 1999). Herbert S. Klein, “The Integration of
Italian Immigrants in to the United States and Argentina: A Comparative Analy-
sis,” American Historical Review 88, 2 (1983), 306–29,provides very interesting data
for both migratory flows.
A substantial literature on chain migration and migratory networks has evolved
from the pioneer article by John and Leatrice Macdonald, “Chain Migration,
Ethnic Neighborhood Formation and Social Networks,” Milbank Memorial Fund
Quarterly 13, 42 (1964), 82–95. Both Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers. Spanish
Immigration in Buenos Aires, 1850–1930 (cited previously), in his study of Spaniards
in Buenos Aires, and Samuel Baily, in his research on the Italians (Immigrants in
the Land of Promise: Italians in Buenos Aires and New York City, 1870 to 1914 [cited
previously] stress the importance of locality and migration networks in shaping
migratory flows. They also ponder the importance of the social and institutional
capital that facilitated the insertion of Italians and Spaniards into Argentine society
and culture. Immigrants in Latin America created different kinds of organizations
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
P1: GDZ
0521812909bbs CB929-Bulmer 052181290 9 September 30, 2005 16:39
708 Bibliographical Essays
and associations, the most well known being the mutual-aid societies. This asso-
ciational growth in some Latin American countries attribatable to immigration
can be studied in the light of the concept of social capital. Although not directly
related to immigrants’ association but very useful readings are Partha Dasgupta
and Ismail Serageldin, eds., Social Capital: A Multifaceted Perspective (Washington,
DC, 1999); Joel Sobel, “Can We Trust Social Capital?” Journal of Economic
Literature 60 (2002), 139–54; and Edward Glaeser, David Laibson, and Bruce
Sacerdote, “The Economic Approach to Social Capital” (NBER Working Paper
7728, http://www.nber.org/papers/w7728).
Particularly important is the collective volume, Robert I. Rotberg, ed., Patterns
of Social Capital. Stability and Change in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, 2001),
in which the chapter by Gerald Gamm and Robert D. Putnam, “The Growth of
Voluntary Associations in America, 1840–1940,” 173–219, shows the possibilities
for historical research on this particular topic.
Data on immigrants’ literacy can be found in the official immigration statistics
and population censuses of receiving countries. It is also useful to consult Peter
Flora, “Historical Processes of Social Mobilization: Urbanization and Literacy,” in
Samuel N. Eisenstadt and Stein Rokkan, eds., Building States and Nations Analyses
by Region (London, 1973), 213–56; and Zulma Rechini de Lattes and Alfredo E.
Lattes, La poblaci
´
on argentina (Buenos Aires, 1975), for the Argentine case.
Section IV
There are two basic and preliminary readings to study the effect of population
growth on economic development: Ansley J. Coale and Edgar M. Hoover, Pop-
ulation Growth and Economic Development in Low-Income Countries (Princeton,
NJ, 1958); and Richard Easterlin, Population, Labor Force and Long Swings in Eco-
nomic Growth (New York, 1968). Other useful readings are United Nations, The
Determinants and Consequences of Population Trends (New York, 1953) and, more
recently, Allen C. Kelley, “Economic Consequences of Population Change in the
Third World,” Journal of Economic Literature 26 (1988), 1685–728.
The historical approach to the economic consequences of the changing age struc-
ture of the population can be found in J. G. Williamson, “Growth, Distribution
and Demography: Some Lessons from History,” Explorations in Economic History
35, 1 (1998), 241–71. Alan Taylor developed at length the idea of a demographic
burden for Argentina because of immigration in “External Dependence, Demo-
graphic Burdens and Argentine Economic Decline After the Belle Epoque,” Journal
of Economic History (cited previously). See also his article, “Peopling the Pampa:
On the Impact of Mass Migration to the River Plate, 1870–1914,” Explorations in
Economic History 34 (1997), 100–32.
Useful demographic data can de found in O. Andrew Collver, BirthRates in
Latin America: New Estimates of Historical Trends and Fluctuations (Berkeley, CA,
1965); Nicol
´
as S
´
anchez-Albornoz, The Population of Latin America: A History (cited
previously); and Brian R. Mitchell, International Historical Statistics. The Americas
1750–1988 (Basingtoke, 1993).
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
P1: GDZ
0521812909bbs CB929-Bulmer 052181290 9 September 30, 2005 16:39
Bibliographical Essays 709
CHAPTER 11 (FERNANDO REIMERS)
This chapter is an interpretive reconstruction of the development of education
rather than a descriptive account or chronicle of past events. In this essay, I provide
the reader with the sources of data and other analyses on which I have drawn.
I discuss secondary sources of data on the history and structure of education
systems in Latin America as well as sources of quantitative empirical evidence
on the educational access, resources, and results in the form of attainment and
achievement of students in the region. I also cover selected sources of interpretive
analysis on the history of education.
There are abundant primary sources to pursue historical analysis of education
in Latin America. Archival records exist of national education systems as well as of
many specific education initiatives. Important primary documents also include the
written works of Latin American educators who have shaped influential ideas in
the region, such as Bello, Sarmiento, Vasconcelos, Mart
´
ı, or Freire, among others.
Most historical analyses of specific periods and issues can rely on these types of
primary sources. To the researcher interested in cross-country comparisons or in an
examination over broad time periods, the prospect of relying extensively on primary
data is daunting. The available options include relying on a selection of secondary
sources such as historical narratives. Scholarship in the fields of political science or
education policy also often provides information relevant to the historical study
of education. I have relied on a blend of sources, combining historical accounts
with descriptive, rather than interpretive, presentations of the history of education
systems and with quantitative educational indicators that can be used to analyze
changes over time and differences across countries.
Sources on the History of Each of the National
Education Systems
Rich descriptions of the history of education in each of the countries in Latin
America, with detail on the legal and institutional framework, are provided in the
series, Sistemas educativos nacionales,prepared by the Organization of Iberoamer-
ican States with the national Ministries of Education during the 1990s. Although
there is little analysis or interpretation in these documents, and although the qual-
ity and depth of the descriptions are uneven, a strength of this series is the use of a
common framework to present descriptive details on each country’s education sys-
tem. Because these are quasi-official documents, they are not a good independent
source on the accomplishments resulting from recent government policies.
Another good starting point to compare education systems and structures is
the International Encyclopedia of Education, which includes chapters describing the
national education systems of most countries in the world, including a specific sec-
tion on history of education and information on major trends during the 1900s. As
with the previous series, the entries in this encyclopedia use a common framework
to present information, which is advantageous for comparative purposes. This is a
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
P1: GDZ
0521812909bbs CB929-Bulmer 052181290 9 September 30, 2005 16:39
710 Bibliographical Essays
particularly good source for a discussion of contemporary structures of education
systems.
Zaghloul Morzy, Pensadores de la educaci
´
on (Paris, 1993), which provides profiles
of world education thinkers, is a good reference for a discussion of the legacy of
some of the early Latin American educators. The profiles provide good, succinct
summaries of the major contributions of each author and of the key historical
developments of their time.
There are many country-specific studies of education. For example, see Mark
Hanson, Educational Reform and Administrative Development: The Cases of
Colombia and Venezuela (Stanford, CA, 1986), which discusses how history shaped
the institutional structure of education in these countries. Daniel Levy, Higher
Education and the State in Latin America (Chicago, 1986), discusses the history
of higher education in the region. Alexander Dawson, “‘Without It Our Race
Would be Lost.’ The Problems and Promise of Mexico’s Internados Ind
´
ıgenas,
1932–1942” (presented at the Conference of the New England Council of Latin
American Studies, Salem, MA, November 3, 2001), is a good source on the
education of indigenous people, as is Brooke Larson, “Capturing Indian Bodies,
Healths and Minds: ‘El hogal Campesina’ and Rural School Reform in Bolivia,
1920s–1940s” in Merilee Grindle and Pilar Domingo, ed., Proclaiming Revolution.
Bolivia in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge, MA, 2003), 183–209.
Sources of Quantitative Data
There are several sources that allow for a comparative analysis of quantitative indi-
cators, many of which are underutilized in much of the scholarship about education
in the region. These sources include information on access to education at different
levels, obtained either via education statistics kept by Ministries of Education or
via household surveys. They also include information on the educational attain-
ment of the population, obtained from household surveys and censuses. Relying on
data compiled by international agencies or as part of comparative research projects
minimizes the biases that can result from governments’ self-serving manipulation
of educational statistics. Although international agency reports are not devoid of
problems, many of those are at least documented in footnotes.
Oneofthe most comprehensive and utilized sources is UNESCO’s statistical
database. It is arguably the best source of comparative statistical evidence. The first
reports from this database, UNESCO’s Statistical Yearbook, date back to the early
1950s. The reports have copious notes and appendices and much effort goes into
ensuring the comparability of information across countries. Nowadays, there are
more user-friendly formats than the Yearbook, including an online database and
periodic summary tables from this database presented in UNESCO’s World Edu-
cation Reports: UNESCO, WorldEducation Report. The Right to Education (Paris,
2000). UNESCO’s recently created Institute of Statistics has a good online database
(http://www.uis.unesco.org/en/stats/statistics/database/DBIndex.htm) with basic
indicators of access, duration of the school day, and the like. The information pro-
vided in this source is collected using common standards to ensure comparability
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
P1: GDZ
0521812909bbs CB929-Bulmer 052181290 9 September 30, 2005 16:39
Bibliographical Essays 711
across countries and, in most cases, also to ensure comparability of the series over
time.
Another source is the World Bank’s Social Indicators of Development Database.
Most of the education data come from UNESCO’s database, but the extended time
series are presented in easy-to-manipulate formats that are convenient for statisti-
cal processing. There are also some educational indicators in the World Develop-
ment Indicators Database, accessible online at http://devdata.worldbank.org/data-
query/.
Information on educational participation derived from household surveys
includes Interamerican Development Bank (IDB), Measuring Social Exclusion:
Results from Four Countries, 2001, cited in PREAL, Qued
´
andonos Atr
´
as (Washington,
DC, 2002), 10. The IDB also devoted one of its annual thematic reports to inequal-
ity, using comparative evidence from household surveys in a dozen of countries
in the region: IDB, Facing Up to Inequality in Latin America (Washington, DC,
1999). A comparable source is the series of reports of the Economic Commission
for Latin America: CEPAL, Panorama social 1998, and Panorama social 2001–2002
(Santiago, 1999 and 2003).
The World Bank research project, Educational Attainment and Enrollment
Around the World, continually updates tables from household surveys describ-
ing educational participation by income group and can be accessed online at
http://www.worldbank.org/research/projects/edattain/edattain.htm.
Good comparative data with OECD countries for some of the Latin American
countries is found in OECD, Education at a Glance. OECD Indicators (Paris,
2001). Studies with comparative evidence on student learning outcomes are very
recent in the region. They include Albert Beaton et al., Mathematics Achieve-
ment in the Middle School Years: IEA’s Third International Mathematics and Sci-
ence Study (TIMSS) (Chestnut Hill, MA, 1996); Educational Testing Service, The
International Assessment of Educational Progress: Learning Mathematics (Princeton,
NJ, 1992); UNESCO-OREALC, Laboratorio latinoamericano de evaluaci
´
on de
la calidad de la educaci
´
on. Primer estudio internacional comparado (Santiago,
1998); Elley Warwick, Howinthe World Do Students Read? (Newark, NJ, 1992);
OECD-PISA, The OECD Program for Student Assessment, http://www.pisa.
oecd.org/, Progress in International Reading Literacy Study, 2001, isc.bc.edu/
pirls2001.htm.
CHAPTER 12 (OTTO T. SOLBRIG)
There is no comprehensive scholarly study of the history of agriculture in Latin
America. The closest to one is the fine study of Jacques Chonchol, Sistemas agrarios
en Am
´
erica Latina (Mexico City, 1994). A much less comprehensive study of the
animal sector is Lovell Jarvis, Livestock Development in Latin America (Washington,
DC, 1986). An analysis of Latin American agriculture around 1960 before the green
revolution can be found in CEPAL, Problemas y perspectivas de la agricultura lati-
noamericana (Buenos Aires, 1965). A later assessment of the principal characteristics