Ball Martin, M?ller Nicole. The Celtic Languages

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THE

CELTIC

LANGUAGES

The Celtic Languages describes in depth all the Celtic languages from historical, struc-

tural and sociolinguistic perspectives with individual chapters on Irish, Scottish Gaelic,

Manx, Welsh, Breton and Cornish.

This second edition has been thoroughly revised to provide a comprehensive and up to

date account of the modern Celtic languages and their current sociolinguistic status along

with complete descriptions of the historical languages.

This comprehensive volume is arranged in four parts. The ﬁ rst part offers a description

of the typological aspects of the Celtic languages followed by a scene- setting historical

account of the emergence of these languages. Chapters devoted to Continental Celtic, Old

and Middle Irish, and Old and Middle Welsh follow. Parts II and III are devoted to lin-

guistic descriptions of the contemporary languages. Part II has chapters on Irish, Scots

Gaelic and Manx, while Part III covers Welsh, Breton and Cornish. Part IV is devoted to

the socio linguistic situation of the four contemporary Celtic languages and also has a ﬁ nal

chapter describing the status of the two revived languages Cornish and Manx.

With contributions from a variety of scholars of the highest reputation, The Celtic Lan-

guages continues to be an invaluable tool for both students and teachers of linguistics,

especially those with an interest in typology, language universals and the unique socio-

linguistic position which the Celtic languages occupy.

Dr Martin J. Ball is Hawthorne- BoRSF Endowed Professor, and Director of the Haw-

thorne Research Center, at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. He is also Honorary

Professor at the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, and has over 120 academic publica-

tions. Among his books are The Use of Welsh, Mutation in Welsh, and Welsh Phonetics.

Dr Nicole Müller is Hawthorne- BoRSF Endowed Professor at the University of Louisi-

ana at Lafayette. She has over 65 academic publications. Among her books are Mutation

in Welsh, and Agents in Early Irish and Early Welsh.

ROUTLEDGE LANGUAGE FAMILY SERIES

Each volume in this series contains an in- depth account of the members of some of the

world’s most important language families. Written by experts in each language, these

accessible accounts provide detailed linguistic analysis and description. The contents are

carefully structured to cover the natural system of classiﬁ cation: phonology, morphology,

syntax, lexis, semantics, dialectology, and sociolinguistics.

Every volume contains extensive bibliographies for each language, a detailed index

and tables, and maps and examples from the languages to demonstrate the linguistic fea-

tures being described. The consistent format allows comparative study, not only between

the languages in each volume, but also across all the volumes in the series.

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THE

CELTIC

LANGUAGES

2nd edition

Edited by

Martin J. Ball and Nicole Müller

First published 1993 by Routledge

11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE

Second edition published 2009 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge

270 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10016

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Editorial selection and material Martin J. Ball and Nicole Müller;

chapters © the contributors

in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or

hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information

storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN 978–0–415–42279–6 (hbk)

ISBN 978–0–203–88248–1 (ebk)

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009.

o purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s

collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.

ISBN 0-203-88248-2 Master e-book ISBN

CONTENTS

List of ﬁ gures vii

List of contributors ix

Preface xiii

Part I HISTORICAL ASPECTS 1

1 Typological aspects of the Celtic languages 3

James Fife

2 The emergence of the Celtic languages 22

Joseph F. Eska

3 Continental Celtic 28

Joseph F. Eska and D. Ellis Evans

4 Early Irish 55

David Stifter

5 Old and Middle Welsh 117

David Willis

Part II THE GOIDELIC LANGUAGES 161

6 Irish 163

Dónall P. Ó Baoill

7 Scottish Gaelic 230

William Gillies

8 Manx 305

George Broderick

Part III THE BRYTHONIC LANGUAGES 357

9 Welsh 359

Gwenllian Awbery

10 Breton 427

Ian Press

11 Cornish 488

Ken George

vi CONTENTS

Part IV THE SOCIOLINGUISTICS OF THE CELTIC LANGUAGES 537

12 Irish- speaking society and the state 539

Tadhg Ó hIfearnáin

13 Scottish Gaelic today: social history and contemporary status 587

Ken MacKinnon

14 The sociolinguistic context of Welsh 650

Robert Owen Jones and Colin H. Williams

15 Language, culture and identity in Brittany: the sociolinguistics of Breton 712

Lenora A. Timm

16 The revived languages – Cornish and Manx 753

Ken George and George Broderick

Index 770

RUNNING HEAD RECTO vii

FIGURES

2.1 The oldest portion of the Indo-European family tree 22

2.2 Transalpine and Proto- Insular Celtic 25

2.3 Gallo- Brittonic and Goidelic 25

3.1 (a) The standard shapes of the eastern school of writing in the Celtic

adaptation of the Iberian script; (b) the shapes of the nasal characters in the

western school of writing 29

3.2 The Lugano script 30

4.1 The Ogam alphabet and its medieval transliteration 57

5.1 The vowel phonemes of Late (West) Brythonic 120

5.2 The early Welsh vowel system 123

7.1 Forms and meaning of the Gaelic verb 270

7.2 Tense/aspect relation of the Gaelic verb 270

9.1 The simple vowels of Welsh in north Wales 360

9.2 The simple vowels of Welsh in south Wales 360

9.3 The simple vowels of Welsh in south- west Wales 360

9.4a–c The diphthongs of Welsh in north Wales 364

9.5a–b The diphthongs of Welsh in south Wales 366

10.1 Administrative divisions of Brittany 428

10.2 The expansion and retreat of Breton 428

10.3 The traditional dialect areas of Breton 430

11.1 The westward retreat of traditional Cornish 490

11.2 Examples of Cornish orthography 497

12.1 Irish speakers in Ireland 540

12.2 The Gaeltacht (deﬁ ned 1956–82) 558

12.3 Deﬁ ning Gaeltacht: Múscraí, Co. Cork (1956–82) 563

13.1 Gaelic speakers by area of incidence 1881–2001 (a) numerical,

(b) percentages 591

13.2 Gaelic speakers in Highland and Lowland areas 1881–2001 (a) numerical,

(b) percentages 592

13.3 1891 census: persons aged 3 and over able to speak Gaelic, as a percentage

of total population, by civil parish 593

13.4 Size and location of Gaelic populations: 1891 census 594

13.5 Map 2001 census – parishes 595

13.6 Map 2001 census – council areas 596

13.7 Intergenerational language shift: Gaelic- speaking adults, Harris 1973 600

13.8 Western Isles (Barra) 1978 survey (a) Gaelic usage in family of origin

(b) Gaelic usage in present- day family 603

viii FIGURES

13.9 Western Isles (Harris) 1978 survey (a) Gaelic usage in family of origin and

(b) Gaelic usage in present- day family 605

13.10 Western Isles (Harris) 1978 survey – Gaelic usage in present- day family 606

13.11 Scotland 1981: age and sex structure of national population 615

13.12 Scotland 1981: age and sex structure of Gaelic population 616

13.13 Scotland 1981: areas with bilingual primary Gaelic teaching schemes.

Age and sex structure of Gaelic population 617

13.14 Scotland 1981: areas with second language primary Gaelic teaching

schemes. Age and sex structure of Gaelic population 618

13.15 Scotland 1981: all areas with primary Gaelic teaching schemes.

Age and sex structure of Gaelic population 619

13.16 Scotland 1981: areas without primary Gaelic teaching schemes.

Age and sex structure of Gaelic population 620

13.17 Primary schools with Gaelic teaching schemes in 1981 621

13.18 Gaelic usage in community and media: Isle of Skye Gaelic speakers

1986–7 (a) in community situations, (b) community ﬁ gures and (c) media/

entertainments 622

13.19 Gaelic usage in community and media: Western Isles Gaelic speakers

1986–7 (a) in community situations, (b) community ﬁ gures and (c) media/

entertainments 624

13.20 Western Isles – language use in family 1994–5 (a) numerical and

(b) percentages 625

13.21 Western Isles – language use in family – Gaelic speakers 1994–5 and

2004–5 (a) numerical and (b) percentages 626

13.22 Western Isles – language use in community 1994–5 (a) higher Gaelic use

levels, (b) moderate Gaelic use levels and (c) minimal Gaelic use levels 627

13.23 Western Isles – language use in community 2004–5 (a) higher Gaelic use

levels and (b) lower Gaelic use levels 629

13.24 Western Isles – Gaelic speakers in community 2004–5 (a) possible

Gaelic language use in community situations and (b) actual Gaelic language

use in community situations 630

13.25a 2001 census: major areas for Gaelic – all migrants 637

13.25b 2001 census: Gaelic migrants 638

13.26 Families with Gaelic parents and children aged 3–15 years, Scotland 639

13.27 Families with Gaelic parents and children aged 3–15 years, Western Isles

area and Skye and Lochalsh district 640

14.1 The decline of Welsh speakers, 1801–1901 657

14.2 The decline of Welsh speakers, 1801–1981 661

14.3 Westward movement of English, 1750–1900 663

14.4 Areas with 80 per cent Welsh speakers in 1931 and 1951 664

14.5 Distribution of Welsh speakers, 1961 666

14.6 Welsh heartlands, 1971 668

14.7 Distribution of Welsh speakers, 1981 669

14.8 Distribution of areas showing an 80 per cent density of Welsh speakers

in 1981 670

14.9 Location and circulation of community newspapers, 1989 688

14.10 Proportion of people aged 3 and over who can speak Welsh (2001 census) 701

15.1 Brittany: department boundaries and the shifting linguistic frontier 715

15.2 Upper and Lower Brittany and traditional dialect areas within the latter 724

RUNNING HEAD RECTO ix

CONTRIBUTORS

Gwenllian Awbery is a native speaker of Welsh, and has published on a wide range of

topics in Welsh linguistics, including syntax, phonology and dialect variation. She was

formerly on the staff of the Welsh Folk Museum, responsible for the study of Welsh

dialects, and then joined the Centre for Lifelong Learning at Cardiff University, as Co-

ordinating Lecturer for Welsh. She recently retired and now works as an independent

researcher.

Martin J. Ball is Hawthorne-BoRSF Endowed Professor, and Director of the Doris B.

Hawthorne Research Center in the Department of Communication Disorders at the

University of Louisiana at Lafayette. He is an Honorary Professor at the Univer-

sity of Wales Institute, Cardiff. Dr Ball has authored and edited twenty-ﬁ ve books,

over forty contributions to collections and over eighty refereed articles in academic

journals. He is co-editor of the journal Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics. His main

research interests include clinical phonetics and phonology, and the linguistics of

Welsh. He has authored and edited books on Welsh phonology, phonetics, mutations

and sociolinguistics.

George Broderick is Professor for Celtic languages at the University of Mannheim. His

erstwhile specialist subject is Manx Gaelic language and literature. Among his publi-

cations are the three-volume Handbook of Late Spoken Manx: Language Death in the

Isle of Man, and the multi-volume Dictionary of Manx Place-names.

Joseph F. Eska is Professor of Linguistics at the Virginia Polytechnical Institute and State

University. He is a leading authority on the ancient Celtic languages of continental

Europe and has published widely on the early history of the Celtic language family.

Among his publications are Towards an Interpretation of the Hispano-Celtic Inscrip-

tion of Botorrita (1989), ‘Remarks on linguistic structures in a Gaulish ritual text’ in

Indo-European Perspectives, ed. Mark R. V. Southern (2002), ‘Continental Celtic’ in

Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages, ed. Roger D. Woodard (2004), and

‘The dialectology of Celtic’ in Comparative Indo-European linguistics, eds Jared

Klein and Matthias Fritz (forthcoming).

(David) Ellis Evans was born in the Towy Valley in south-west Wales. He studied at Jesus

College, Oxford, eventually receiving his PhD from the University of Oxford. He was