ASM Metals HandBook Vol. 8 - Mechanical Testing and Evaluation
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Fig. 8 Metallographic cross section of soft-recovered tantalum sample following spallation
Fig. 9 Scanning-electron microscopy (SEM) image of transgranular cleavage fracture in Ta-10W
spallation sample. Source: Ref 84
Quantification of the damage nucleation and evolution processes leading to dynamic failure provide the critical
physical insight into the micromechanisms governing this complex dynamic fracture process (Ref 22).
Documentation of the time- and stress-dependent loading parameters, specific damage mechanisms controlling
nucleation and growth, and the microstructural factors influencing these processes is needed to develop
physically based models describing the spallation of ductile materials.
References cited in this section
14. B. Hopkinson, The Pressure of a Blow, The Scientific Papers of Bertram Hopkinson, Cambridge
University Press, 1921, p 423–437
15. M.A. Meyers and C.T. Aimone, Dynamic Fracture (Spalling) of Metals, Prog. Mater. Sci., Vol 28,
1983, p 1–96
16. J.S. Rinehart, Scabbing of Metals under Explosive Attack: Multiple Scabbing, J. Appl. Phys., Vol 23,
1952, p 1229–1233
20. D.R. Curran, L. Seaman, and D.A. Shockey, Linking Dynamic Fracture to Microstructural Processes,
Shock Waves and High Strain-Rate Phenomena in Metals, M.A. Meyers and L.E. Murr, Ed., Plenum,
1981, p 129–167
22. A.K. Zurek and M.A. Meyers, Microstructural Aspects of Dynamic Failure, High Pressure Shock
Compression of Solids II: Dynamic Fracture and Fragmentation, L. Davison, D.E. Grady, and M.
Shahinpoor, Ed., Springer-Verlag, 1996, p 25–70
24. C.S. Smith, Metallographic Studies of Metals after Explosive Shock, Trans. Metall. Soc. AIME, Vol
214, 1958, p 574–589
25. G.T. Gray III, Influence of Shock-Wave Deformation on the Structure/Property Behavior of Materials,
High-Pressure Shock Compression of Solids, J.R. Asay and M. Shahinpoor, Ed., Springer-Verlag, 1993,
p 187–216
26. D.G. Doran and R.K. Linde, Shock Effects in Solids, Solid State Phys., Vol 19, 1966, p 230–290
28. W.C. Leslie, Microstructural Effects of High Strain Rate Deformation, Metallurgical Effects at High
Strain Rates, R.W. Rhode, B.M. Butcher, J.R. Holland, and C.H. Karners, Ed., Plenum Press, 1973, p
571
29. L.E. Murr, Residual Microstructure—Mechanical Property Relationships in Shock-Loaded Metals and
Alloys, Shock Waves and High Strain Rate Phenomena in Metals, M.A. Meyers and L.E. Murr, Ed.,
Plenum, 1981, p 607–673
30. L.E. Murr, Metallurgical Effects of Shock and High-Strain-Rate Loading, Materials at High Strain
Rates, T.Z. Blazynski, Ed., Elsevier Applied Science, 1987, p 1–46
40. E.G. Zukas, Shock-Wave Strengthening, Met. Eng. Q., Vol 6, 1966, p 1–20
42. G.T. Gray III, Shock-Induced Defects in Bulk Materials, Materials Research Society Symp. Proc., Vol
499, 1998, p 87–98
44. S. Mahajan, Metallurgical Effects of Planar Shock Waves in Metals and Alloys, Phys. Status Solidi (a),
Vol 2, 1970, p 187–201
46. G.E. Dieter, Metallurgical Effects of High-Intensity Shock Waves in Metals, Response of Metals to
High Velocity Deformation, P.G. Shewmon and V.F. Zackay, Ed., Interscience, 1961, p 409–446
61. G.T. Gray III, Deformation Twinning in Aluminum-4.8 wt.% Mg, Acta Metall., Vol 36, 1988, p 1745–
1754
82. L. Davison and R.A. Graham, Shock Compression of Solids, Phys. Rep., Vol 55, 1979, p 255–379
83. G.T. Gray III, N.K. Bourne, M.A. Zocher, P.J. Maudlin, and J.C.F. Millett, Influence of
Crystallographic Anisotropy on the Hopkinson Fracture “Spallation” of Zirconium, Shock Compression
of Condensed Matter—1999, AIP Conference Proceedings, M.D. Furnish, L.C. Chhabildas, and R.S.
Hixson, Ed., American Institute of Physics Press, Woodbury, NY, 2000, p 509–512
84. G.T. Gray III and A.D. Rollett, The High-Strain-Rate and Spallation Response on Tantalum, TA-10W
and T-111, High Strain Rate Behaviour of Refractory Metals and Alloys, R. Asfahani, E. Chen, and A.
Crowson, The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 1992, p 303–315
Shock Wave Testing of Ductile Materials
George T. (Rusty) Gray III, Los Alamos National Laboratory
Summary
Systematic shock-loading studies of materials, in which microstructural “real-time” shock physics processes,
mechanical property, and dynamic fracture effects are characterized quantitatively, provide important
diagnostic tools to understand the constitutive behavior of materials. A variety of loading techniques can be
used to shock load materials including HE-driven gas/powder launchers, exploding foils, laser-driven flyer
plates, and direct radiation impingement (including lasers and electron beams). Shock recovery experiments
provide a post mortem snapshot of the structure-property response of a material to the extreme conditions of
strain rate, triaxial stress, and temperature imposed by the shock for comparison with in situ wave profile and
shock-reload data. Postmortem characterization of shock-loaded materials will continue to contribute valuable
data to the understanding of real-time wave profile and shock wave data.
Shock Wave Testing of Ductile Materials
George T. (Rusty) Gray III, Los Alamos National Laboratory
Acknowledgments
This work was supported under the auspices of the United States Department of Energy. The author
acknowledges the assistance of B. Jacquez and C.P. Trujillo in conducting the shock recovery and spallation
testing. The author wishes to acknowledge R.S. Hixson and Dennis Hayes for critically reviewing this
manuscript.
Shock Wave Testing of Ductile Materials
George T. (Rusty) Gray III, Los Alamos National Laboratory
References
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Crystallographic Anisotropy on the Hopkinson Fracture “Spallation” of Zirconium, Shock Compression
of Condensed Matter—1999, AIP Conference Proceedings, M.D. Furnish, L.C. Chhabildas, and R.S.
Hixson, Ed., American Institute of Physics Press, Woodbury, NY, 2000, p 509–512
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Low-Velocity Impact Testing
Horacio Dante Espinosa, Northwestern University, Sia Nemat-Nasser, University of California, San Diego
Introduction
IMPACT TESTS are used to study dynamic deformation and failure modes of materials. Low-velocity impact
techniques can be classified as plate-on-plate, rod-on-plate, plate-on-rod, or rod-on-rod experiments. Two types
of plate-on-plate impact tests have been developed: wave propagation experiments and thin-layer high-strain-
rate experiments. The plate-on-plate experiments are further classified as nonrecovery or recovery experiments.
The focus of this article is on plate-on-plate experimental techniques. At the end of this article, rod-on-plate and
plate-on-rod experiments are briefly examined.
Observation of plane waves in materials provides a powerful method for understanding and quantifying their
dynamic response (Ref 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) and failure modes (Ref 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,
20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, and 29). Plate impact experiments are used to generate such plane waves (Ref
30, 31, and 32). These experiments provide controlled extreme stress-state loading conditions, involving one-
dimensional stress-pulse propagation. The recovery configurations in plate-on-plate impact experiments are
performed with the objective of examining the microstructural changes in the specimen after it is subjected to
loading under a uniaxial strain condition. The experiments are designed to achieve a controlled plane-wave
loading of the specimens. In practice, this is limited by the finite size of the plates employed, which generate
radial release waves. This has the potential for significant contribution to the damage processes by introducing
causes other than the uniaxial straining of the material. Hence, this aspect of the plate impact experiment has
been a subject of considerable research in the past (Ref 11, 13, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, and 39).
The plate impact experiments are performed in two main modes: normal impact and pressure-shear, or oblique,
impact. Both modes have been specialized to several new configurations to achieve different aspects of control
over the imposed loading. In these experiments, the time histories of the stress waves are recorded and used to
infer the response of the specimen with the goal of constitutive modeling. To enable the formulation of correct
constitutive behavior for the considered material, knowledge of the micromechanisms of deformation that occur
during the passage of the stress waves is necessary. Such knowledge is also necessary for damage-evolution
studies. Hence, it is important that the specimen is recovered after it is subjected to a well-characterized loading
pulse so that it can be analyzed for any changes in its microstructure. This is achieved in the normal plate
impact mode by using an impedance-matched momentum trap behind the specimen (Ref 1, 7, and 11). Ideally,
the momentum-trap plate captures the momentum of the loading pulse and flies away, leaving the specimen at
rest.
Initially, the recovery technique was developed for the normal plate experiments (Ref 1, 38, and 39), and it has
been implemented in the pressure-shear mode to study shear stress-sensitive, high-rate deformation
mechanisms. The difficulty in conducting pressure-shear recovery experiments stems from the fact that both the
shear and longitudinal momenta must be trapped and that there is a large difference in the longitudinal and
shear wave velocities for any given material. To overcome this problem, one idea that had been proposed was
to use a composite flyer made of two plates of the same material that are separated by a thin layer of a low
shear resistance film, such as a lubricant (Ref 40, 41). This design would enable the shear pulse to be unloaded
at the interface, while the pressure pulse would be transmitted to the next plate. The pressure pulse would return
to the specimen momentum-trap interface as an unloading wave after the unloading of the shear wave has taken
place. The thickness of the momentum-trap plate is chosen such that the normal unloading wave from its rear
surface arrives at this interface much later, and hence, the momentum trap would separate just as in the normal
recovery experiment, but after trapping both the shear and normal momenta.
The plate impact experiments can be performed at different temperatures by providing temperature-control
facilities in the test chamber. This may consist of a high-frequency (0.5 MHz) induction heating system, for
high-temperature tests, or a cooling ring with liquid nitrogen circulating through an inner channel, for low-
temperature experiments (Ref 42, 43, and 44).
Confined and unconfined rod experiments have been performed (Ref 45, 46) with the aim of extending the
uniaxial strain deformation states imposed in the plate impact experiments. The bar impact and pressure-shear
experiments provide a measurement of yield stress at rates of 10
3
to 10
5
/s
-1
. They also allow the experimental
verification and validation of constitutive models and numerical solution schemes under two-dimensional states
of deformation. In-material stress measurements, with embedded manganin gages, are used to obtain axial and
lateral stress histories. Stress decay, pulse duration, release structure, and wave dispersion are well defined in
these plate and rod experiments.
References cited in this section
1. P. Kumar and R.J. Clifton, Dislocation Motion and Generation in LiF Single Crystals Subjected to
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5
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