Allen Paul W. Industrial Fermentations
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MARINE PRODUCTS 281
water, although instances are cited where shellfish infected by polluted
water, either in their natural or artificial beds, have also been the
vehicle of disease transmission.
"(4) The shellfish industries of this country are extensive and
important, comparing favorably with other industries concerned with
the production of food materials. A valuable article of food is fur-
nished to millions .of people by these industries, and thousands of
individuals find profitable employment in developing and carrying on
this business in all its phases.
"(6) The indiscriminate introduction of sewage into our natural
bodies of water is now the greatest enemy to the shellfish industries.
In order to correct this evil it will be necessary to prevent further
pollution of our waters, or else to remove the shellfish industries from
the grounds subject to pollution.'
"(6) Oyster beds should be proteoted from every possible source
of contamination, and they should be located in water proven to be
pure by repealed examinations. These examinations should consist of
careful bacteriological and chemical analyses of both the water and
oysters from oyster layings. The laboratory findings should also be
supplemented by systematic inspection of all the territory which could
in any wise affect the condition of the water flowing over the oyster
beds.
"(7) The practioe of floating oysters in water of questionable
purity should be absolutely prohibited because of the probability of
sewage contamination. When it is desired to remove the gross filth
from the exterior of the shell, oysters may be floated and allowed 'to
cleanse themselves' in suitably constructed devices in waters free
from pollution, and containing no less salt than the water in which
they will grow to maturity.
"(8) Like other perishable food products, oysters may become
unfit for use if stored or kept under unsanitary conditions. This
spoilage, however, may take place wholly from the length of time out
of water.
"(9) Oysters removed from pure beds may become contaminated
during the process" of shucking or preparation for the market in in-
sanitary shucking establishments. These places should be constructed
in a sanitary mariner and provided with satisfactory appliances for
the proper cleansing and sterilization of utensils used for shipping
oysters. Without such devices it is almost impossible to prepare
packages in a sanitary manner. This is particularly true when cans,
barrels or containers' of any kind are used a seoond time without
proper cleansing and sterilization. When contaminated these unsterile
vessels may become active agents for the dissemination of disease-
producing organisms.
"(10) The liquor in the shell surrounding the oysters contains
more bacteria than does an equal volume of meat from the same oyster.
This liquor, together with any sand in the gills of the oyster, can be
removed and the meat chilled at the same time by the use of pure
282 INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATIONS
ice and water. This washing process oan be done efficiently within
3 to 10 minutes, depending upon the method employed. Oysters
should not be allowed to soak in fresh water, as they increase in
volume, change in appearance and flavor, and decompose more rapidly
than those not soaked."
The Canning of Marine Products.
C. H. Stevenson classifies canned marine products into five classes
as follows:
" (1) Plain boiled, steamed, or otherwise cooked.
" (2) Preserved in oil.
"(3) Prepared with vinegar, sauces, spices, jellies, etc.
"(4) Cooked with vegetables, etc.
" (5) Preserved by some other process but placed in cans for con-
venience in marketing.
"The first class includes salmon, mackerel, herring, menhaden,
cod, halibut, smelt, oysters, clams, lobsters, crabs, shrimp, green turtle,
etc;
sardines almost exclusively make up the second class.
"The third class includes various forms of herring prepared as
'brook trout,' 'ocean trout,' etc., mackerel, eels, sturgeon, oysters,
lobsters, crabs, etc.
"The fourth class includes fish chowder, clam chowder, codfish
balls,
green turtle stew, terrapin stew, and deviled crabs.
"The fifth class is
1
made up of smoked herring, halibut, haddock,
carp,
pickerel, lake trout, salmon, eels, sturgeon, etc., and brine salted
mackerel, cod and caviar."
Bitting describes the oyster canning industry as follows: "In
1858 Louis McMurray, of Baltimore, found that by scalding the
oysters in boiling water the shells' would partially open and the labor
of shucking could be lessened. Two years later the system of steaming
them instead of scalding was developed, and no material change in
method has taken place since that time. McMurray is said to have
had a most excellent reputation as an oyster packer. His method was
to save all the liquor and condensed steam from the steam boxes, filter
it, and use it in filling the cans. He used neither salt nor water.
Tnere is probably no packer in the business at the present time fol-
lowing this method.
"Oysters are obtained by dredging and by tonging, the former
upon the reefs" and in the deeper water, and the latter in the shallow
bayous where planting has been done. The usual equipment consists
of a schooner of about 48-foot keel, 65 feet over all, and 16-foot beam.
When loaded, this will cany about 275 barrels of oysters. The crew
consists of a captain and four men. A dredge is carried on each side
of the boat and operated by two men. The dredge consists of a heavy
iron rake about 3 feet wide, to which is attached a chain or heavy
oord purse, the mouth of which is held open by an iron bar just above
the rake. The dredge is lowered to the ground and dragged along by
MARINE PRODUCTS
the movement of the boat. The rake loosens the
rook or ground and they are collected in the purse.
"At short intervals the dredge is drawn on board oy means 01 i
windlass, the purse is emptied, and the operation repeated. Th(
oysters are culled in some places, the small ones being returned. The
catch is put in the hold if the boat is out in warm weather or is to be
gone for more than a day. The trips are generally limited to from
three to five days in order to insure delivery in a fresh condition at
the cannery. Other varieties of smaller boats are also used, though
power boats are generally barred. The Gulf-coast factories pay about
60 cents per barrel for oysters used in canning and 80 cents per barrel
for those used in the fresh trade, owing to the difference in size. The
barrel iB rated by measure and not by weight. On the eastern coast
the measurement is by the bushel.
"The oysters are rated by Bize. If there are from 800 to 1,000 to
a barrel they are known as standard, from 600 to 800 per barrel as
selects, and from 450 to 600 per barrel as extra selects. The largest
oysters, known as 'counts' on the east coast or as 'plants' on the Gulf
coast, run leBS than 460 per barrel and are always sold raw. The
larger oysters are found on certain reefs on which work has been pro-
hibited for given periods or in certain water where planting has been
done. The term 'plants' when applied to eastern oysters refers to
those taken from deep water, transplanted in shallow water, and culti-
vated until they have attained a desired size.
"When the oysters are brought in
{
they are hoisted directly from
the boat to the steaming car. These iron cars or crates are 28 inches
wide, 19 inches deep, and 8 feet long. They will hold 6 barrels of
2%
bushels each. As soon as the car is filled the oysters Bhould be
given a thorough washing with clean water to remove the dirt and mud
attached to the shell before it goes to the steam box, otherwise .there is
contamination during the shucking. The cars are wheeled from the
dock to the steam box, which accommodates 3 cars. The steamer is
a rectangular iron box, just large enough to admit the cars, and is 25
feet in length. There are a few variations from these sizes, but these
are standard. The doorB are dosed at both ends; steam is turned on
until a pressure of 10 pounds is reached, and this is maintained for
5 minutes. The doors are then opened and the oysters allowed to cool
quickly in the air. It is important that the oysters be steamed well
so that there will be no shrinkage in the can, but not long enough
to cause them to become crummy. Both the time and the temperature
at which the steaming is done seem to have been fixed by experience,
as none of the superintendents seemed to know what the effect would
be if a lower temperature and longer time or higher temperature and
shorter time were given.
"The car of steamed oysters is pushed into the shucking shed, the
shuckers standing around the car and working until it is emptied.
The usual number of shuckers is from five to eight, and they are
generally women and children.
284 INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATIONS
"The steamed oyster has the shell partly opened, the meat being
easily removed by means of a short, heavy-bladed knife. The oysters
are deposited in pans which are hooked to the oyster oar. The shticker
receives 5 centa for 3% pounds of selects or 3 pounds of standards.
The oysters are weighed as received from the smickers, washed and
placed in cans by weight aooording to the grade and order. The cans
are filled with a weak hot brine (2 pounds of salt to 10 gallons of
water),
frequently by passing the cans through a dip box. This method
was used at one time in other lines of canning, but has been superseded
by more sanitary methods, and should be in this case.
"The cans are capped in the usual manner, either by hand or ma-
chine, and are then processed in the retort at 240 degrees F., the No. 1
cans ior 12 minutes and the No. 2 for 15 minutes. The different packers
vary the time a few minutes, but practically all use the same tem-
perature.
"The oysters are cooled as soon as sterilized, and when dry are
ready to pack. The oyster is easily sterilized, it is not hard on the
can. and there is little loss from spoilage.
"The term 'cove' is applied to any canned oyster. It originally
meant only the oysters obtained on the western shores of Chesapeake
Bay and was distinctive of quality. Gradually any oyster became a
cove oyster and now the term refers to canned oysters irrespective of
where they are obtained."
The Preparation and Canning of Shrimps.
Bitting describes the process as follows: "The peeled shrimps are
thoroughly washed in two or more changes of water and are then ready
for blanching. The blanching consists in boiling the shrimp in salt
water, which is done by suspending them in a wire basket in the
boiling brine. The time of the blanch is usually about four minutes
for the wet pack and five minutes for the dry pack. The salt in the
brine iB in the proportion of about 1 pound per gallon of water. Up
to the time the shrimps go into the blanch they are white or slightly
gray in color; the boiling in the brine oauses them to beoome bright
pink or red.
"The shrimps are turned out upon trays having wire netting. As
soon as cool they are filled into cans by hand, each can being weighed.
The shrimps are all packed in either No. 1 or No. 1% cans, the former
having 4% ounces and the latter 9 ounces. There is no attempt at
grading.
"Shrimps are put up in what are known as dry and wet paoks.
In the dry pack no liquor is added, while in the wet pack brine is used.
The process for dry shrimps is 1 hour at 240 degrees F. or 4 hours at
212 degrees F. for No. 1 cans, and 75 minutes at 240 degrees F. and 4
hours at 212 degrees F. for No. 1% cans. The process for wet shrimps
is 11 minutes for No. 1 and 12 minutes at 240 degrees F. for No. 1%
cans.
MARINE PRODUCTS
286
"The fill of 4% and 9 ounoes in the No. 1 and No. 1% cans has the
appearance of being light weight or slack filled. Experience has
shown, however, that close filling causes matting of the shrimp and an
unsightly appearance. The wet-packed shrimps are preferred by
those who are familiar with the fresh article. They have better tex-
ture,
odor, and taste than the dry packed. A barrel of good shrimps
will pack 190 No. 1 cans or 100 cans of No. VA.
"Formerly shrimps were put up in bulk with a preservative. These
were headless (only the head ana thorax removed, the shell left on),
and since that method of preservation is no longer approved, very
few shrimps are obtained upon the market other than canned. Some
pickled headless shrimps are put up in 1 to 5 gallon cans for hotels.
These are boiled in strong brine for several minutes and put up in a
saturated salt solution. They keep, but are very salty, and as it takes
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90$.
Fia. 40.—Salmon cannery at Hoonah, Alaska.
a long time to freshen them they are not, available for immediate use.
"Shrimps are difficult to keep.' Put up in the ordinary tin can
they will blacken in a short time and will attack the tin, making
minute holes. Success in canning shrimps was dependent upon lining
the can. This was first done by Mr. G. W. Dunbar of New Orleans,
in 1875. The method consisted in inserting a sack in the can and
filling it with the shrimps' to prevent
,
their coming in
>
direct contact
with the tin. Later a thin veneering of wood, corn husks, parchment
paper, asphaltum, and enamels were used. Parchment paper is used
by all packers, with possibly one exception, at this time; in this case
wood veneer is used."
Acoording to Bitting: "Salmon canning on the Pacific coast is
one of the large canning industries, and is" of so much importance
that Government aid is extended in maintaining fish hatcheries in
order to keep up the supply. The first salmon canning was done on
the Sacramento River in 1864, later on the Columbia River in 1866,
286 INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATIONS
in British Columbia in 1874, and in Alaska in 1882. The value of
the salmon pack on the Pacific coast is more than $10,000,000 an-
nually.
"There are four species of salmon which have large commercial
importance—Oncorhynchus tsohawytscha, the chinook, quinnat, red
spring, or King Alaska; O. nerka, the sockeye, Blueblack or redfish;
O. kisutch, cohoe, silver or silver sides; and 0. gorbuscha, humpbacks
or pink Alaska. Preference is given to the bright pink color by the
consumer, but for real quality the paler cohoe excels some of the
others, the fresh being lees dry and containing more oil and a better
flavor.
"The salmon are caught in the rivers as soon as
1
practicable after
they leave the sea on the way to the spawning grounds. They are
caught by nets, seines, traps, and fish wheels. The catching of the
fish is done on an elaborate scale, an idea of which may be gained from
a brief description of a trap. This consists' of a steel-wire netting,
starting at the shore and carried out into the stream at an upward
angle for a distance of about 2,500 feet. This netting is supported
by piles placed about 15 feet apart. At the outer end is a large square
oompartment known as the pot. This is usually about 40 by 40 feet
and in water as deep as 65 feet. This pot contains a dip net equal to
its area. Just previous to reaching the pot the trap is made to zigzag
or assume a heart shape, so that the fish in trying to pass up the stream
will be directed into the pot."
The Canning of Salmon.
Tuirentine describes the process of canning salmon as follows
1
:
"Formerly the cleaning or butchering was done by Chinamen, and
in some canneries this practice ia continued. In most instances, how-
ever, gleaning by hand has been supplanted by machine cleaning.
"The mechanical cleaner is spoken of in the parlanoe of the
cannery as the 'iron chink,' a name which originated from the pseudo
name of its' human predecessor. Without entering into a detailed
description of this machine, it is sufficient to say that it essentially
is a revolving disk or wheel about 2 feet in diameter, around which
knives and stiff bmsheB are arranged. These work together to split
the fish along its belly, to remove its viscera, and to sever itef fins, and
finally its tail.
"The machine is fed by two laborers, the first of whom places a
fish under a stationary knife, against which it ia lifted mechanically.
The second laborer thrusts the beheaded fish into a slot, of which there
are a number on the peripheral rim of the wheel, tail first, so that it
becomes wedged and is held firmly. It thus is lifted and carried
around, belly outward, by the wheel, and is brought successively
against the knives and brushes. Abundant jets of water are made to
play upon the fish as it passes through the machine.
"This contrivance works' rapidly and fairly successfully, with a
MARINE PRODUCTS 287
rated capacity of 50 fish per minute and an aotual output of 36 dressed
fish per minute. It thus is possible to do away with the large force
of skilled and high-waged dressers. Fish are by no means uniform nor
rigid objects; therefore no machine can be expected to adapt itself
to the variation in size and the manner in which they pass through
the machine. Asr the fish are not dressed uniformly by the machine,
they subsequently must be passed under the knives of the 'slimers,'
laborers whose duty it is to finish the work left incomplete by the
machine. As the number of these about equals the number of
'butchers' which would be required if the dressing were done altogether
by hand, there is not the economy in labor resulting from the use of
the mechanical cleaner that would be expected. The fact that muoh
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801.
~FIQ. 41.—Cooking the salmon in retorts.
less skill is required of 'slimers' than of 'butchers,' however, is an
item greatly in favor of the use of the mechanical oleaner.
The Cutting Process.
"After being thoroughly oleaned, the fish are cut into pieces of
convenient size for filling the cans. A mechanical cutter of simple
design has been adopted for this purpose. It consists essentially of
a short conveyor which is made to revolve over bearings in such a
way as to describe an ellipse. Blocks of wood are placed at intervals
to carry the fish. At the apex of the ellipse revolving knives are
place. These revolve in horizontal slits in the conveyor and blocks.
As
1
the blooks start on their upward course the fish are placed upon
them by hand and are carried through the knives. The distance be-
288 INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATIONS
tween the knives is such that the fish are out into seotions of the proper
length to fill cans of the size for whioh they are intended.
The Filling of the Cans.
"Cans designed -to hold a pound of fish are filled usually by a
machine which, by means of a plunger, thrusts into the can pieces^ of
salmon already cut to the right length and trims off that which
projects. As the thrust of the plunger is uniform, the machine is able
to load the oans with a nearly exactly uniform weight of fish, and
works rapidly. Less than a second is required in filling a can. From
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900.
Pia. 42.—Cutting salmon into pieces of a size to fit the can.
the filler the cans are passed along a table, where they are inspected
for short weight. Smaller cans are filled by hand. Their Bhallowness
makes them less adapted to the filling maohine, as they do not retain
their charge of fish so readily.
"After fining, it remains to cap the cans or put the lids on, cook
the contained fish, seal, clean, and label. The canning process in-
volving the use of soldered cans has been supplanted almost entirely
by that based on the use of the solderless or so-called 'sanitary' can.
The latter process, being almost entirely automatic, effects a great
saving in labor as well as floor space, and is commendable from both
a mechanioal and a sanitary point of view.
"The modern cannery is equipped with machinery in -unite. A
unit is spoken of as a 'line.' The one-line cannery is equipped with
MARINE PRODUCTS 289
a meohanioal cleaner, or 'iron chink/ a cutter, a filling machine, a
capping machine, followed by a steam box for the preliminary cooking
before sealing, two crimping machines for fastening the caps to render
the can air-tight, and the requisite steam autoclave capacity for the
final cooking. Such an equipment" gives a daily capacity of 900 cases
of canned salmon, eaoh cade containing 4 dozen
1-pound
oans or 48
pounds of canned salmon. This estimate is based on a day of about
12 hours. During the canning season a 'one-line' cannery, or one
with a single unit, «is expected to pack about 40,000 cases. The
season's pack is determined by the skill of the management, the
condition of the market, and the fortune of the fishermen."
Kippered Salmon.
J. N. Cobb discusses the kippering of salmon as follows: "On the
Pacific coast practically all of the kippered salmon is prepared from
frozen white-meated king salmon, which on account of the color of
the flesh is not in muoh demand. It is, however, fully the equal, in
both flavor and food value, of the red-meated kinds. It is not abso-
lutely essential that the fish be first frozen, as the fresh fish may be
kippered after dressing, but the latter is always a little soft when so
prepared owing to an excess of moisture, which is largely removed in
freezing. Fresh salmon is available only part of the year, so it is
found most convenient to freeze and store the stock and work it up
when needed throughout the year.
"Before freezing the fish have been dressed, so when thawed in
cold, running water, it is only necessary to split and cut them into
pieces of a pound or less, these being about 6 inches long, or perhaps
3 inches broad, depending upon the part of the fish the piece is taken
from, and place them in a tank of strong brine to season for several
hours.
They are then dipped in a harmless vegetable coloring, similar
to that used by the butchers for coloring sausage; this gives the out-
side of the product a red color, a concession to popular prejudice.
"From the ooloring tank, the pieces are placed on a tray with wood
frame and bottom of one-half inoh square meshed wire; care is taken
that the pieces do not touch eaoh other.
"The tray is then slipped into a rack which will hold a number of
these, placed one above the other, and this rack is then run on a track
into the smokehouse.
"A medium fire is then kindled which dries and slightly Bmokes
the pieces from 16 to 18 hours.
rf
When they reach a proper stage the fire is enlarged but great
care must be exercised in order to prevent their being overheated, and
this is done by means of the damper at the bottom of the smokehouse
and the ventilator at the top. The fish are baked in this manner from
25 to 35 minutes, the thermometer showing from 250 to 275 degrees
of heat.
"When the cooking is completed the cars are pulled out and the
290 INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATIONS
fish allowed to cool, after which eaoh piece is wrapped in a square of
parchment paper and packed in a box or basket which holds 10
pounds."
J. N. Cobb says, "The process of preserving fish by freezing
WBB
fast introduced in 1888.
"There are four important features in packing and using frozen
salmon: (1) To get fresh fish; (2) to keep them cold (about 15
degrees above zero) after they are frozen; (3) to keep a coat of ioe
on them; and (4) to allow them to thaw slowly in cold water or in the
air before cooking.
"In selecting salmon for freezing, only the finest and freshest of
each species are used. The current belief that freezing destroys the
flavor of the fish is erroneous, the flavor depending entirely upon the
condition before freezing, and the quicker they are frozen after being
caught the better will the natural flavor of the fish be preserved.
Frozen salmon are just as wholesome as fresh^ and their chemical
constituents are almost identical. The danger lies in the temptation
to freeze the fish after decomposition has set in but, fortunately, this
is now very rarely practiced in the salmon industry.
"The cohoe or silver, and the chum, or dog, salmon are the choicest
of the salmons for freezing. The other species, except the red, or
sockeye, which is too oily and rarely frozen, are also frozen in varying
quantities. The steelhead trout, which is ranked by the Pacific ooast
dealers among the salmon, is considered the choicest fish of all for
freezing.
"Some of the most modern plants in the oountry are on this
coast. These have numerous freezers, generally, in which a tempera-
ture of from 26 degrees to 30 degrees F. below zero can be maintained
if desired, although a temperature of more than 10 degrees below zero
is rarely ever required. All freezing is
1
by direct expansion and each
freezer is piped with about 2 feet of
1^-inch
pipe per cubic foot of
freezing space. The bunkers in the freezers are in pairs, generally
nine pipes wide, spaoed 10 inches apart. This leaves about 3%-foot
passage through the center of each freezer opposite the swing doors.
The salmon are laid on metal sheets, which are placed on the tiers of
pipes'.
"After freezing the salmon are passed through openings in the
rear of the freezers into the glazing room, which has a temperature
of about 20 degrees F., where they are dipped into water, and when
removed are covered with a thin glaze of ice, which may be thickened
by repeated dippings. This is an extra precaution to exclude the air
from the fish.
"After being thoroughly frozen and glazed, eaoh fish iB covered
first with a parchment, like rolls of butter, and then with a piece of
heavy brown paper. They are then packed in boxes holding about
250^pounds each, placed in cold-storage cars and shipped.
' The method of freezing fish in brine is now under serious con-
sideration by a number of fishermen and dealers. A brine freezer may