Allen Paul W. Industrial Fermentations

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TEE CANNING INDUSTRY 261

Bigelow, W. D., and Estey, J. B., 1920. Jour. Inf. Dis., 27, 602.

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Bitting, A. W., 1915. Methods followed in commercial <winfag of foods. IT. S.

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246-261.

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Cheyney, E. W, 1919. A study of the micro-organisms found in merchantable

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also Vol. 31, No. 6, pp. 556-568.

Denton, Minna C, 1918. What temperature is reached inside the jar during

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also pp. 501-540.

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Howard, B. J. Microscopical studies on tomato products. Bui. 581, U. S. Dept.

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262 INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATIONS

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No. 6, pp. 600-609; 31, No. 6, pp. 541-666.

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Tmi

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Tech. Quart., v. 11.

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269.

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sterilization. Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem., Vol. 11, p. 667.

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lfelb.

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Farmers' Bui. No. 839.

U, S. Dept. of Agri, 1917. Canned goods safe. Weekly News Letter, V. 16, 6.

Chapter 19.

Cane and Beet Sugar.

The oane sugar industry is very old. Cane sugar making was

practiced in India in about 400 A.D. The beet sugar industry first

became important in Germany when in 1785 the King of Prussia

erected beet sugar factories to develop the industry. However, it

was the sugar shortage in France in 1805 whioh gave the beet sugar

industry the opportunity of greatest development. The importation

of oane sugar into France was temporarily cut off by England's block-

ade of French shipping which resulted in a severe sugar famine in

France. Napoleon emphasized the production of sugar from beets

after many other sources' had been tried without much commercial

success.

Cane Sugar Manufacture.

In the manufacture of cane sugar, the cane is passed through pre-

liminary shredders and then between smooth steel rolls whioh press

out the juice much as a wringer removes water from clothes. About

90 per cent of the juice is obtained in this way while the remainder

may be obtained by extracting the residual sugar from the bagasse by

using water.

As the oan juice comes from the rollers it is heavily contaminated

with germ life. Due to the warm climate of sugar cane countries a

vigorous fermentation starts as soon as the juice is separated from the

cane.

The light sugar liquors in a few hoiirs will become sour and the

destruction of sugar wiU result. To prevent this the sugar liquor is

concentrated to a point where germs can no longer grow, that is

about 40 degrees Baum6. The heat required to concentrate the

liquorB kills off the germ life present and the high concentration pre-

vents the growth of organisms which later gain entrance. In heating

the liquors for concentration, lime is added to cause the nitrogenous

constituents of the liquors to "break" or coagulate and rise to the top.

This is a purifying operation. In the evaporation of the sugar liquors,

crystals begin to form when a certain concentration is reached. When

the crystallization in the heavy liquors has reached a certain point, it

is sent to the centrifugals where the crystals are separated from the

molasses by the copper screen of the centrifugal machines'. The sugar

which is first removed from a liquor is called centrifugal or raw sugar

and is not white. This process of separation is repeated several times

268

264 INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATIONS

until most of the saccharose of the heavy sugar liquor is obtained as

moist crystals of raw sugar.

The refining of the raw sugar is not generally carried on where

the cane is produced but is sent to refineries in the country where the

sugar is to be marketed.

Beet Sugar Manufacture.

The manufacture of beet sugar differs somewhat, in principle, from

raw oane sugar manufacture. The beets are scrubbed and then sliced

into Very thin slices. The sliced beets are placed in diffusion tanks

set up in batteries so that the flow of liquors through them can be

controlled as to concentration of sugar. The heaviest liquors are

taken from one end of the tattery and the new diffusion water is

applied to the most thoroughly extracted beet pulp. The sugar liquor

leaving the diffusion battery is treated from this point on, in the same

manner as light cane sugar liquor in the cane sugar process.

Moore says, "The juice is extracted from the cane by means of

heavy steel horizontal crushers and rollers' driven by powerful steam

engines. The cane passes first between two crushers, which are rollers

with interlocking teeth of various designs on their faces. Here the

cane is pressed into a mat of even thickness. It passes by means of an

endless oarrier to the first set of rollers which are arranged in a group

of three—two below and one above. In most modern mills there are

three to four such groups of rollers arranged in tandem. As the mat

of cane passes in a horizontal direction from one set to the next, it is

sprayed with hot water to dilute the remaining juice and facilitate a

more complete extraction. After passing the last roller the mat of

extracted cane fiber, or bagasse, is carried on another endless conveyer

to driers or directly to the furnace, where it is used for fuel to operate

the mill,

"The juice flowing downward from the sets of rollers' is first strained

to remove suspended matter. It passes through a juice heater, where

the temperature is raised to 190-200 degrees F., thence into settling

tanks.

After about one-half hour the fairly clear juice is drawn off,

leaving a deposit of dirt in the bottom of the tank. The juice is

further clarified by the addition of lime. Sulphurous acid or other

chemicals may also be used, depending on the methods followed in

individual mills, All methods have for their purpose the precipitation

of impurities, which are afterwards filtered out, or the decomposition

of reducing sugars into organio acids. The settlings and scums from

juice heaters and settling tanks are treated separately, and the dear

liquor recovered from them is added to the main body of clear juice,

which is evaporated to sirup under partial vacuum in the so-called

'effects.' The sirup may or may not be further clarified and filtered

at this point, depending on details of the process used. It now passes

into the vacuum pans where it is" boiled at low temperatures under

greatly reduced atmospheric pressure. After long-continued boiling

CANE AND BEET SUGAR 265

the sirup becomes very thick and concentrated, due to evaporation of

water, and small crystals of sugar begin to appear in the heavy viscous

liquid. These crystals grow in size with the introduction from time

to time of fresh sirup. When the crystals are of proper size the magma

of crystals and mother liquor known as 'massecuite' is passed on to

the centrifugals, where the next operation of separating crystals from

the mother liquor (molasses) takes place. Usually the molasses is

not entirely exhausted of sugar and is returned and boiled again in

the vacuum pan, either alone or with the addition of fresh sirup. The

process may be repeated several times.

"The centrifugal machines, of which there are usually a large

number, known technically as a 'battery,' consist of vertical cylindrical

baskets inclosed in jaokete. The sides of the baskets are perforated

and in addition are lined with fine-mesh wire-gauze strainers. The

baskets are revolved at high speed and the molasses is thrown out

against the sides of the outer jacket and drops into a gutter below.

The crystals are retained in the baskets and are washed quickly with

water while revolving to remove the film of molasses. The sugar is

scraped with paddles' from the sides of the baskets as they revolve and

is carried through tubes to driers, then to a spout where it is bagged

or barreled."

Brandes, et al., are of the opinion that cane syrup may have a future

of greater importance. They say: "Extension of the market for cane

sirup has been retarded by the fact that, as it is produced by a large

number of individuals on a relatively small scale, the sirup has varied

greatly in quality. Furthermore, oane sirup evaporated to fairly high

density will crystallize, while on the other hand sirup of sufficiently

low density to prevent crystallization inevitably ferments unless heated

and preserved in air-tight containers. Correction of these difficulties

will materially assist in increasing the market for cane sirup.

"Crystallization of cane sirup is due to the presence of too great

a proportion of sucrose or cane sugar and may be prevented by a

process recently developed in the Department of Agriculture. This

consists of using invertase, an enzyme obtained from yeast, in such

manner as partially to invert cane sugar, thereby producing a mixture

of oane sugar and invert sugar of increased solubility. By partially

inverting the cane sugar in cane sirup by this method it is also possible

to produce a noncrystallizing sirup of such high density as to greatly

minimize the danger of fermentation. This last procedure is recom-

mended for sirup shipped in barrels or held in bulk during warm

weather. The process is also advantageous for preventing crystalliza-

tion of sirup of moderate density packed in cans. The value of the

method has been demonstrated in commercial practice. -The cost for

invertase is approximately one-half cent per gallon of sirup."

Brandes, et al., give the following description of beet sugar manu-

facture: "Sugar beets, like sugar cane, are transported for manufac-

ture into sugar to large factories which, for the reasons given in the

discussion of cane, should be centrally located with reference to the

266 INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATIONS

beet-growing area. Private railways are in almost universal use on

cane plantations, but this is nof the case with beets, whioh are grown

mostly on small independent farms, and hauled in wagons to the mill

or to loading stations on the main railway. At the factory the beets

are dumped into V-shaped bins at the bottom of which is

a flume

covered with removable boards. As needed, the beets are carried into

the factory by the swift current of the flume.

"Briefly, the process of manufacture consists of cleaning and

slicing the beets, placing the slices in large cylinders and extracting the

sugar by diffusion. This is

accomplished by successive treatments

with hot water. Here is where the process differs essentially from

extraction from cane. The extract is clarified by treatment with

suitable chemicals, the sludgelike precipitated material removed by

filtering, and the clean juice evaporated under reduced pressure until a

mass of sugar crystals has been formed. The sugar is finally separated

from the other liquor or molasses. After several strikes of sugar have

been obtained, the molasses is further desugarized by other processes.

The Steffen process is generally used in this country.

"Owing to variations in the composition of beets, due largely

to storage and variation in degree of maturity, it has been necessary

to discard molasses from time to time in operating the Steffen process,

the net result being that only 65 per cent of the beet molasses produoed

has

been treated for recovery of sugar. The remaining 35 per cent

has been used in the past largely for feeding purposes, a relatively

small amount having been used for manufacture of alcohol. Owing

to the recent drop in price of this discard molasses, the question of

increased efficiency in desugarization has become very important.

The Department of Agriculture is investigating this problem at the

presrent time and also devising improved analytical methods, which

will make it possible to determine more accurately the amounts of

sugar entering the factory and the losses which occur during the

process of operation. More accurate chemical control makes possible

further reduotion of sugar losses."

W. L. Owen in Louisiana Experiment Station Bulletin No. 125

(1911),

says: "The question of the deterioration of sugars in storage

has formed the subject of many investigations both in the cane and

beet sugar industries in recent years, and has also occupied the atten-

tion of the sugar planter since it has come to be generally appreciated

as a source of considerable loss

. It is probable that the loss to the

industry through this source was suspected' long before scientific

investigation had established it as an actual fact, and probably before

the nature of the causes of this change in sugars' had been apprehended.

For a long time the popular idea regarding the deterioration of sugars

was that this action was due to certain changes which might be termed

autogenous—that is, those changes independent of outside influences.

As an example of this theory, we might take the idea that the slow

deterioration of sugars is caused by the hydrolytic action of the

organic acids which they contain. Later, however, this view was

PLATE 10

Ourn &

LowUma BmUetfn

1U.

MioroohotoKraphs of swear cane bacteria.

I I I I

I I I I I I I I

Reaction

Gnun'i Btain

I I

I I I I I I I I

Formation

Bporas

I I I I I I I I

1 1

I 1

LlquefaatloD

Gelatine

I I I I I I I I I I I I

Add

I I I I I I I I I I

GflJ

1111111111111

Add

I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Fermentation

of DextrtJM

Gai

I I I I I I I I I I I I

Dsxtnn

I I I I I I I I I I I 1-1

tlon

BnaroBB

Levin

I I I 1 I I 1 I I I I 1 I

Prodnotloo

Indol

Prodnotion

Hydrogm Sulphide

H-1 I I I I I I I 11 I I

Growth

Albnpien (Free Hadimn)

Source

Site

Ulorons

I I I I I I I I I I I I I

PreienoQ

Flagvlla

| I I I I I I I

I+++

Film

Bonfllan

II++I+II+++II

Growth

Olond

Arm

89Z

CANE

AND

BEET

SUGAR

269

modified and the theory of the indireot inversion of sugar by bacteria

became a popular one. By this indirect inversion is meant that which

is due to the action of the acids developed by the microorganisms

occurring in sugars.

Owen remarks: "In view of the many conditions lacking in sugar

to fulfill the requirements of the great majority of bacterial species',

the discovery of certain species which have adapted themselves to

these unusual conditions for bacterial development is of interest even

considered apart from the economic importance of the changes that

they induce. For with the knowledge of this adaptation of bacteria

to environments highly unfavorable to their development, as viewed

from the standpoint of what we have hitherto regarded as essential

to it, we are compelled to believe that the range of bacterial activities

is far wider than we have thought them."

This subject of the development of tolerance to substances, bv

bacteria, is a very important one as is shown in the practice of

methods of ^reservation by salting, suo;ar curing, etc.

Brain and Deerr, and also Owen considered that no organisms could

grow in sugars containing less than 1% of moisture. This means that

sugars of so low a water content do not deteriorate on storage.

In the above table Owen pives the cultural characteristics of

some of the most important bacteria found on sugars. He gays that

these organisms are divided into three grouDs ut>on the basis of their

morphology and physiology. The groups which he mentions are:

(a) Mesenterieus vulgatus type.

(b) Mesenterieus fuscus

type.

In the table on opposite page Owen gives the characteristic of

belonging to the above types.

The following table taken from Louisiana Bui. 125, by Owen,

illustrates very well the bacterial condition of sugar refinery liquors,

washings, and sugars:

BACTHHIOLOQICAI/ ANALYSES OP SAMPLES FHOM A BTTOAB RSFTNHHY.

Presence

of Species

Dilution

No.

of Organisms of Economic

Name

Sample

Employed

per Gram or

ec.

Importance

Raw sugar 1:100 1,000 +

Raw washings

1:1000

5,000

Washed sugar 1:100 2,000 +

Melted washed sugar

Def. wash, susar and liquor 1:200 800 +

Bag

filtered

wash, sugar and liquor 1: 1000 3,000

Moulds &

Bacteria.

Light sweet water „

Clear

filtered

liguor

1:1000

1,000 +

Defecated washings 1:000 6,000 +

Bag

filtered

washings 1: 000 0,000 +

270

INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATIONS

ANALYSES

SAMPLES

FBOM

STJQAB RanrNmY—Continued.

Presence

of Species

No.

of Organisms of Economic

per Oram or

co.

Importance.

8,000

400,000

No development

Dilution

Employed

1:2000

1:400

1:2000

2000

Name of Sample

Dark sweet water

Char.

filt.

washings

Mud water

Press cake

Press water

Cono.

sweet water

1:1000

Granulated

magma

1:100

Granulated syrup

1:1000

Wet granulated sugar

Dry granulated sugar

1:60

Remelted magma

Remelted syrup

1:1000

Undefecated liquor

600

Remelted sugar

500

Car sugar

1:600

Barrel syrup

1:100

Car

syrup,

two weeks

in hot

room

1:100

20,000

300

5,000

160

200

25,000

10,000

600

8,000

400

the end of an

investigation

of the

bacterial deterioration

sugars Owen gives

the

following summary

of his

conclusions:

"1.

The

deterioration

sugars

caused

by a

group

bacteria

comprising

the

well-known potato group

bacilli.

"2.

The

destruction

sucrose induced

these organisms

is by

means

of an

enzyme which

have termed levanase. This

enzyme

extracellular

in its

action

and

breaks down sucrose

as-

follows:

CisHaaOu

Hia0

"3.

The

formation

levan

sugars introduces

error

both

the single polarization

and

Clerget methods

determination

of sucrose. This error causes

decrease

in the

single polariza-

tion

of .6V for

every

1 per

cent

levan,

and an

increase

.67V

for

Clerget

in the

presence

per

cent

gum. Owing

to this factor

error,

sugar

which

gum

formation

has

taken place would show

increase

sucrose

by the

Clerget

method

determination.

"4.

The

spores

of the

species causing deterioration

sugar

are

highly resistant

heat-

and

survive different processes

manufacture, thus forming

part

the

contamination

of the

final products.

"5.

The

gum formation

sucroBe

favored

slightly alkaline

reaction

of the

medium."

REFERENCES

SUGAR.

Baohelier,

M.,

1912. Suoerin Indigenes

ej;

Colonial,

p 274

Beyemok,

Fol. Mikrobiol,

1, p.

377.