Allen Paul W. Industrial Fermentations
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PLATE 11
After
Own to
LovUama Bulletin
IBS.
Miorophotographs of sugar oane baoteiia,
271
272 INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATIONS
Brain, L~ and DeenyNoeL Bui. No. 9 of Hawaiian Sugar Planters Sta. (The
terial flora of Hawaiian sugara.)
Beeteon, F. C. Amer. Food Journal, Vol. 12, No. 5, pp. 263-264,
Bertrand and Rosenblatt. Bui. Soo. Chim., 11, pp. 464468.
Oaldwell, H. V. Amer. Food Jour., Vol. 12 No. 5, pp. 266-266.
Claasen, EL Dent. Zuckerund," Vol. 37, pp. 14-15.
DeerrTNoel, and Norrifl, R. S. Bulletin of Hawaiian Sugar Planters Station. (
deterioration of sugars on storage.)
Delaval, H., 1916. Am. Sci. Agron 4, Ser. 5, No. 7-9, pp. 323-336.
Dodflon, W. R. Louisiana Exp. Sta., Bui. 75.
Freeman, J. E. Amer. Food Jour., Vol. 12, No. 6, pp. 255-259.
Gillet, CL 1917. International Sugar Jour., 19, pp. 284-269.
Hall, R. R. West Indiana, Bui. 10, pp. 67-169.
Hartmann, K. Chem. Abs,, 6. p. 812.
Heinrelmann, G. Z. Spiritusind, 38, pp.
20-21.
Herafeld, A. Z. Ver. Zuckerind,
63,
jp.
744-751.
Jackson, D. G. Louisiana Planters,, vol. 54, pp. 173-174.
Kent, R. S. Louisiana Planter, 54, pp. 91-92.
Kuhl, Hugo. Sudd, Apoth. Ztg., 62, p. 92.
Owen, W. L. Louisiana Planter, 49, pp. 293-295.
Owen, W. L. Am. Sugar Ind., 15, pp. 26-28.
Owen, W. L. Intern. Sugar. Jour., 17, pp. 275-280 (1915).
Owen, W. L, Louisiana Planter, 46,pp. 153-155.
Owen, W. L. Jour, of Ind. and Eng. Chem., Vol. 3, No. 7, pp. 481-486.
Owen, W. L. Sugar, 16, No. 6, pp. 33-36.
Owen, W. L. Louisiana Ezp. Sta., Bui. Ill, p. 6, 1916.
Owen, W. L. Louisiana Exp. Bta. Bui. 125, p. 88.
Owen, W. L. Sugar, 17, No. 8, pp.
29-31,
1915.
Owen, W. L. Amer. Sue. Ind., Vol. 15, pp. 24-26.
Owen, W. L. Louisiana Planter, 54, pp. 172-173 (1915).
Palmer,T. G. Amer. Food Jour., Vol. 12, No. 5, pp. 260-262.
Pellet, H. Bui. Assoc. Chim. Sucr. Dist., Vol. 85, pp. 178-182.
Perkins, H. Z. E., 1923. Indue. & Engineer. Chem., 15, No. 6, pp. 623-624.
Prinsen, Geeriigs, H. C. Discussions 8th Intern. Congr. Chem, Vol. 27,
60-61.
Prinsen, Geeriigs, H. C, 1915. Louisiana Planter, Vol. 54, pp. 205-206.
Prinsen, Geeriigs, H. C, 1915. Louisiana Planter. Vol. 54, pp, 142-143.
Robert, J. Bui. Assoo. Chim. Suor. Inst., VoL 80, pp. 457-463.
Rolfe, G. W. Chem. Neun« 107, pp. 217-218.
Schone, A. Dult. Zuokerund, 36, pp.
608^11:
alflo Vol. 16, pp. 247-248.
Scott, J. Intern. Sugar Jour., 14, pp. 582-586; also pp. 633-637.
Shqrey, 1908. Jour. Soo. Chem. Ind.
Smith. R. Grieg. Proc. Limean Soo. of New South Wales. (The deteriorat
of raw and refined sugar crystals in bulk.)
Tempany, H. A, West Indian Bui., Vol. 10. pp. 130-137.
Tucker, J. H., 1894. Manual of Sugar Analysis (Text).
Viola, B. Met. Chem. Eng., Vol. 9, pp. 206-209.
Wachtel, A, Von. Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem., Vol. 3, No. 5, pp. 335-9,
Weinrioh, M. Intern, Sugar Jour., Vol. 19, pp. 406-407.
Chapter 20,
Meat Products.
The activities of bacteria, yeasts, and molds are a continuous danger
to meat at almost every step in its production, preparation, manufac-
ture,
and handling. Some of the products formed when microorganisms
grow in meat are very detrimental to health.
The growth of miscellaneous bacteria in meat may be very danger-
ous not only because disease producing organisms may be present but
because of the toxins and poisonous by-products which often result
when certain common bacteria attack meat proteins.
Meat producing animate are in more or less danger of becoming
infected with one or more of a long list of infectious diseases, and
part of these are transmittible to man. For this reason the eating
of meat or meat products has caused much disease in humans. How-
ever, since the establishment of meat inspection in the United States
in about 1885 by the Bureau of Animal Industry, the use of infected
meat has been cut down to a point where the meat passed by such
inspection can be considered safe. It is still true, however, that some
infeotious meat reaches our markets'. This comes from animals killed
on the farm, or in makeshift slaughter houses, by persons who are not
in the meat business, but who nevertheless do occasionally kill an
animal and sell the uninspected meat.
There is not much agreement concerning the relation of the presence
of miscellaneous
1
bacteria in meat to its healthfulness. Some authorities
hold that meat containing more than
1,000,000
bacteria per gram is
not fit for human food while others believe that 10,000,000 bacteria
per gram of meat would be as strict a standard as should be inforced.
On the other hand there are some who do not think that the number
of miscellaneous baoteria in meat has anything to do with its health-
fulness whatever. On this point it seems logical to some to consider
that in general, meat is in danger of developing toxicity or even
pathogenicity in proportion as the miscellaneous bacterial content
rises.
They consider meat of high bacterial content to be dirty, stale,
or improperly handled as to refrigeration or cleanliness.
E. O. Jordan in an address before the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, Dec, 1917, in discussing food poisoning
said:
"Qastro-mtestinal disturbance traceable to some food eaten shortly
before is a common occurrence and is indeed part of the experience
of many persons. Not long since, the majority of such attacks were
273
274 INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATIONS
deolared due to 'ptomain poisoning,' and were deemed to be sufficiently
explained by this designation. It was believed, though never, it must
be confessed, on very good evidence, that the foods responsible for
the trouble had been kept too long or under improper conditions and
had undergone bacterial decomposition or spoiling. This decomposition
was supposed to have resulted in the formation of ptomains, a name
given by Selmi to certain basio compounds formed in the later stages
of protein disintegration. Interest in ptomains was especially stimu-
lated by the work of Brieger, who isolated and studied (1882-1883)
the properties of many of these bodies.
"Confidence in the sanitary significance of ptomains has been
shaken by many facts. For one thing, ptomains are formed in the
later stages of protein decomposition, and by the time they are present,
the organoleptic evidences of decomposition have become pronounced.
There is little doubt that food containing ptomains would be almost
invariably condemned by the senses as nauseating and unfit for use.
On technical grounds numerous criticisms have been made with respect
to the methods used for isolating and extracting ptomains and for
determining their clinical effect. Perhaps the principal reason, how-
ever, for the decline in the belief that ptomains have any important
share in the production of food Doisoning has been the discovery that
in many instances the responsibility can be placed definitely upon
other factors."
It is the consensus of opinion that normally the flesh of healthy
animals is free from bacteria. Fresh meat from healthy animals,
then, if properly handled should be low in germ content. Some au-
thorities believe that there should be bacterial standards for meat
while on the other hand there are people who prefer meat in which
there are visible signs of protein liquefaction. This subject of the
relation of miscellaneous microorganisms to meat needs much further
investigation.
In the large packing establishments meat is inspected by the
Bureau of Animal Industry Inspectors and meat infected with patho-
genio microorganisms is eliminated. Ante-mortem inspection removes
many diseased animals but rigid inspection of the carcasses im-
mediately after slaughter detects the remainder. Nevertheless 25 to
40%
of the meat consumed in the U. S. is said to escape inspection
due to the fact that it is marketed through channels in which there is
no inspection.
Some of the more important infections, pathogenic to man, some-
times found in meat but usually detected by inspection, are tubercu-
losis,
anthrax, trichinosis, actinomycosis, botrymyooeis, pseudo-
tuberculosis, rabies, septicemia, foot and mouth disease, pyemia, etc.
Meat Preservation.
In meat preservation several different methods are employed as
follows:
MEAT PRODUCTS 275
(a) Sterilization and sealing as is the case in the meat oanning
industry.
(b) Partial sterilization by heating as in the preparation of cooked
meats.
(c) Freezing of meat aa is the case in storage and shipment of
fresh meat.
(d) Drying of meat, an old custom used by all peoples more or
less for the preservation of many different kinds of meats
including fish.
(e)
Pickling.
(f) Preservation of meat products by concentration as in the case
of the preparation and preservation of meat extract.
The sterilization of meat by canning is an industry which takes
in almost every type of meat. Corned
beef,
potted meats, canned
chicken, canned roast meats, sardines in oil, and meat soups are some
of the most important canned meats.
Some meats as sausages are partially sterilized by cooking and
keep for days or weeks if kept cold. These sausages are not sterile
but have a very slight germ life in them as the cooking has killed all
bacterial life except perhaps a few Bpore-bearers. Such sausage, if
kept cold, remains a safe food, while, if allowed to become warm for
any length of time becomes dangerous.
Sausage, according to Edelmann, is a mixture of meat and other
products placed in a sausage covering. Some of the products often
used in sausage making are blood, fat, flesh, heart, liver, tongue, salt,
sugar, spices, pepper, paprika, etc.
The object of making meat into sausages is to preserve it, to make
it more appetizing and to more easily market it. In the preparation
of sausages one of the main objectives to be reaohed is the reduction
of bacteria and of bacterial growth in the sausage. This is more or
less accomplished by cooking, sealing, smoking, and the use of in-
gredients which are somewhat germicidal.
The shipping of meat in the frozen state is widely practiced where
meat is shipped long distances by boat. The meat is frozen be-
fore being taken aboard. Frozen meat has been found to keep indefi-
nitely.
The drying of meat such as strips of
beef,
venison, etc., is the
earliest method of meat preservation. Many different kinds of meat
are marketed in the dried state, as dried
beef,
dried haddock, mixed
fiah flakes, codfish, dried herring, etc.
Dried beef is prepared from beef which is pickled in a "brine—
saltpeter—cane sugar" pickle for fifty or sixty days. After pick-
ling," the beef is smoked and dried, which requires from one to two
weeks.
In the preparation of dried
beef,
there is a weight gain in the meat
of several per cent.
Edelmann gives the following beef pickling formula:
276 INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATIONS
90%
brine ^ff
1
"
Saltpeter ^{J*-
Cane sugar
k
20
IDS.
Preservation of meat by curing is well illustrated in the curing of
pork. The curing pickle is made according to Edelmann as follows:
Salt 2% lbs. to 1 gal. water
Cane sugar 5 oz. to 1 gal. water
Saltpeter 4 oz. to 1 gal. water
Use B% to 6% gallons of piokle to eaoh 100 lbs. of
or shoulder.
The pork cute are submerged in the pickle in vats after having
been pumped full of pickle with a pump and needle outfit^ The
object of pumping the pickle into the pork is to shorten the time of
curing and reduce the loss from spurs.
A very important point in curing pork is that the pork be handled
under sanitary conditions and that the pickle be sterile. The packing
vats should be sweet, clean and sterile.
Dry, gait pork, according to Edelmann, is made by rubbing in
14 lbs. of salt to each 100 lbs. of pork after pumping with pickle.
The preservation of meat products by concentration is best illus-
trated by the preservation of beef extract. It is the evaporated filtrate
obtained from new, olean
beef,
treated to high steam pressure. This
extract according to Stutzer contains:
20%
water
60%
organic matter
20%
meat Baits
The preservation of smoked meats is due in part to the germicidal
property of the creosotic compounds of smoke which penetrate the
meat. Hard woods of different kinds are used in smoking meals.
Edelmann says Juniper wood is best. He says that smoking can
be done in a short time even a few hours by forced smoking in a
smoking room held at or near 100 degrees C: Slow smoking at 20
degrees C. requires several days or even weeks.
Disease Organisms in Meat.
B.
enteritidis, when it infects meat, haB been found to grow even
during cold storage. The fact that the toxin produced by this organism
is not destroyed by boiling or roasting makes B. enteritidis infeoted
meat a very dangerous food. The best protection from B. enteritidis
infection of meat is cleanliness in all the operations of production and
preparation. The number of deaths from B. enteritidis poisoning is not
great but the number of cases followed by Blow recovery is considerable.
B.
coli and B. proteus, in meat not refrigerated properly, flourish
and sometimes cause food poisoning in those who consume the meat.
Trichina infection of pork usually results when hogs eat trichina
MEAT PRODUCTS 277
infected rats or foods contaminated with trichina. When humans eat
trichina infected pork, the parasite reaches the circulation by way of
the intestines and the lymph glands. The parasites reach the striated
muscles by way of the circulation. Here the embryos develop. Pains
in these musoles are the first symptoms of the disease.
Detection of trichina infected pork is usually successful by the
microscopic examination of muscles at the base of the tongue and the
pillars of the diaphragm.
When pork is cooked and the central part reaches 80 degrees C.
the parasite is killed. However, pickling or salting does not necessarily
kill the parasite.
REFERENCES ON MEAT.
Bainbridge, F. A. British Food Jour., 14, pp. 126-130.
Barnard, H. E. Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem. 3, No. 5, pp. 286-286.
Bergea, P. Boll. Min. Agr. Buenos Aires. 1908, pp.
887-421.
Blank, Q. Rev. Serv. Intend. Mil. (Pane), 24pp. 198-204.
Edelmann, R., 1916. Meat Hygiene (Text). Trans, by Mohle and Eiohhorn.
Emmett, A. D., and Grundley, H. S. Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem. 1. No. 8, pp.
6SW97.
Hoagland, R^ et al., 1917. U. S. D. A. Bui. 433, p. 180.
Houghton, H. W. Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem., 3, No. 7, pp. 497-608.
Jordan, E. O., 1918". Science N. S., Vol. 47, pp. 80-88.
Kossonio*, A., and Nassau, R. Weinertierartzl WochBchr., 3, pp. 81-102.
LaFevore, E. Am. Food Jour., 12, No. 3, pp. 140-142.
Lund, F. P., and Wilson, J. A. Oklahoma A. & M. Col. Extension, Circular 63.
MacManus, R. D. Am. Food Jour., 12, No. 10, p. 669.
McBride, C. N. U. S. D. A. Bur. Animal Ind., Bui. 132.
MoBride. C. N. U. S. D. A. Yearbook, 1911, pp. 383-390.
Ottolenghi, D. Z. Nahr Genusem, 26, pp. 728-760.
OttolenSu" D. Aroh. Farm Spr., 16, pp.
403-461.
Pease, H. D. Am. Jour. Pub. Health, 2, pp. 849-864.
Richardson, W. D., and Scherucbel, E. F. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. 30, pp.
1616-1664.
Richardson, W. D., and Scherucbel, E. F. Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol. 1, No.
2,
pp. 96-102.
Sherkouski, S., and Tomczak, P. Z. Nahr Genusam, Vol. 22, pp. 211-216.
U. S. D. A. The Meat Inspection Service of TJ. S., Pamphlet No. 714.
Waldron, F. A. Chem. Aba., Vol. 10, pp. 2946.
Weinzerl, J., and Newton, E. B. Jour. Amer. Pub. Health Assn., Vol. 4, pp.
413-417: 408-412.
Wiley, H. W., et al. U. S. D. A. Bur. Chem., Bui. 16.
Wright, A. M. Jour. Soo. Chem. Ind., 31, p. 965.
Zwick and Weichel. Arb. Ears Geaundh., 33, II pp. 260-282.
Zwiok and Weiohel. Chem. Abs., Vol. 6, pp. 896.
Chapter 21.
Marine Products.
Shellfish.
The bacteriological aspects of the shellfish industry are very closely
associated with the sewage pollution of the waterB of bays and river
mouths. The study of this subject is rapidly increasing in importance
because of the greater amounts of sewage entering coastal waters where
oysters are planted. The direot connection of many epidemics tr*
typhoid fever and dysentery with sewage pollution of oysters has em-
phasized the great need of protecting the publio, and also the oyster
and clam industries, from such calamities.
Sewage disposal is a problem which only a few large cities have
wrestled with successfully. Many large and small seu-coast townn
from the time of their first settlement have taken advantage of the
opportunity of disposing of sewage in the ocean. This method of
sewage disposal is practioed too largely at present. Also steamships
and sailing vessels" have the custom of disposing of sewage and garbage
in waters wherever they happen to be. Thus as population increases,
and ocean and river oommerce grows, the menace of pollution of
navigable waters increases, and the shellfish industries are more and
more threatened. As a result there are fewer places to-day where
oysters can be planted and grown free from contamination with disease
germs than ever before.
It is estimated that more than $30,000,000 worth of oysters are
marketed in the U. S. each year. There is no question but that
this industry should be protected and that this great food product
should be increased rather than diminished in total output. Acoording
to G. W. Stiles an extensive industry is also being developed in matur-
ing seed oysters taken from the Atlantic coast and transplanted in
the colder waters of Puget Sound where the water is too cold for
spawning anpl development.
The custom of "floating oysters" is largely practiced in the shellfish
industry because of certain advantages. The practice is to take oysters
from the beds where they have grown and remove them to "floats"
which are large, partly submerged boxes with slatted bottoms usually
20 to 50 feet by 2 feet deep. In these floats the oysters are allowed
to "fatten." The oysters are taken from salt water and are floated
in fresh water. In fresh water the oyster takes in more water than in
salt water due to the fact that fluids inside of the oyster's body are
278
MARINE PRODUCTS 279
quite concentrated. This concentration is" the natural development
of life in salt water. Upon change to fresh water osmosis causes a
swelling of the oyster with fresh water. The advantages of this are
that the oysters weigh more, are more bulky, and also become lighter
in appearance.
Stiles says that the proper control and location of oyster beds
in relation to publio health should be a matter of great concern to
those engaged in the industry. He adds that because of unsanitary
methods of sewage disposal large areas of once valuable oyster grounds
are at the present time subjected to conditions which render the shell-
fish taken from them wholly unfit for food purposes. He says that
many extensive oyster layings may be free from contamination at one
After SWet
At V. 8.
Bureau
of
OhemUtrg BuUettn
188.
pjg 3Q. Indian Creek, where upon investigation nine oyster dealers were
found to be floating oysters in the oellars of their houses. Such practices were
stopped.
time but due to the springing up of summer cottages and the increase
in size of small towns the oyster beds are threatened.
George W. Stiles of U. S. Dept. of Agr. Bur. of Chem. gives the
following conclusions as the result of his studies concerning the con-
tamination of shellfish:
"(1) There iB undisputed evidence to show that infected oysters,
clams,
mussels, scallops, and other shellfish may cause typhoid fever
and other gastro-intestinal disturbances when consumed by susceptible
individual^.
"(2) The epidemics of typhoid fever, due to ingestion of polluted
sea food, have in most instances been traced to shellfish- floated in
polluted water, although there is also evidence that oysters and other
shellfish, grown in polluted waters and directly consumed without
transplanting for a time in pure waters, may be the source of typhoid
infection.
280 INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATIONS
" (3) The investigations pertaining to the Minisink banquet, held
at Goehen, N. Y., on October 5, 1911, show conclusively that the
'Rookaway' oysters served on this occasion were wholly responsible
for the typhoid and gaatro-enteritis cases following this banquet.
" (4) There were 17 well-defined cases of typhoid fever, with one
death, and 83 cases of gastro-enteritis (diarrhoea) traced directly to
eating 'Rockaway' oystera .from Jamaica Bay, floated at Indian Creek,
near Canarsie, Long Island, N. Y.
"(6) In addition to the typhoid and other intestinal disorders
following the consumption of 'Rockaway' oysters at the Minisink
Banquet, there were also 10 other cases of typhoid and 16 of diarrhoea
traced to eating 'Rockaway' oysters, some of which came from the
same lot furnished for the Minisink banquet.
"(6) The bacteriological examination of water and shellfish col-
leoted from Jamaica Bay shows that this body of water is dangerously
polluted; the laboratory data are substantiated by the sanitary inspec-
tion, which shows that millions of gallons of raw sewage discharge
daily into this bay, and, in many instances, in close proximity to or
direotly over oyster beds.
" (7) Typhoid bacilli were isolated in pure culture after 7 and 21
days from oysters which had been floated at Inwood, Long Island,
N.
Y., on October 12, 1911, and kept out of water in storage at 39
degrees !F. Organisms of the B. ooli and B. j^aratyphosu$ groups
were also isolated from oysters floated at Indian Creek, near Canarsie,
Long Island. They were probably the cause of the gasfro-enteritis"
cases following the Minisink banquet.
"(8) This investigation comprises a complete study of all the
factors which would materially contribute to typhoid infection. Each
item of the menu served at the Minisink' banquet was carefully con-
sidered, and the 'Rookaway' oysters served were the only articles
of food consumed by all of those who had typhoid or gastro-enteritis
following this banquet."
Stiles in an investigation, "Shellfish Contamination from Sewage
Polluted Waters and from Other Souroes," gives the following con-
clusions:
"(1) There is undisputed evidence to show that shellfish become
contaminated when placed in sewage-polluted water, and that B. coli
and B. typhosus will survive for variable lengths of time in the liquor
and the body contents of such shellfish after their removal from
infected water.
"(2) The presence of sewage organisms in oysters and other shell-
fish, even in small numbers, may be indicative of great danger; for,
where such organisms exist, the specific cause of enteric fever and
allied disorders may also be found.
" (3) The results of many investigators show that sewage-polluted
shellfish have been responsible for the production of typhoid fever and
other intestinal diseases. The most noteworthy cases appear to have
occurred from eating oysters whioh had been floated in sewage-polluted