Yeang K., Woo L. Dictionary of Ecodesign: An Illustrated Reference

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in soils, topography, climate, hydrology, water

chemistry, vegetation, and other factors, includ-

ing human disturbance. There are four general

categories of wetland: i) marshes, which have

soft-stemmed vegetation; ii) swamps, which have

woody plants; iii) bogs, which have spongy peat

deposits, evergreen trees and shrubs, and a ﬂoor

covered by sphagnum moss; and iv) fens, which

are freshwater, peat-forming wetlands covered

mostly by grasses, sedges, reeds, and wildﬂowers.

Wetlands serve as natural ﬁsh and wildlife

habitats, rest stops for migratory birds, natural

ﬂoodwater storage, water ﬁltration, and erosion

control. When functioning properly, wetlands

provide water-quality protection. When rivers

overﬂow, wetlands absorb and slow ﬂoodwaters,

thereby alleviating property damage.

Wetlands can be adversely affected by increased

pollution, changes in hydrological conditions

that result in saturated soil for certain amounts

of time annually, and vegetation damage. Primary

pollutants include sediment, fertilizer, human

sewage, animal waste, road salts, pesticides, heavy

metals, and selenium. The origin of the pollu-

tants can be runoff from urban, agricultural, sil-

vicultural, and mining areas; air pollution from

cars, factories, and power plants; old landﬁlls

and dumps that leak toxic substances; and mar-

inas, where boats increase turbidity and release

pollutants. Hydrological damage to wetlands

can include deposits of ﬁll material for devel-

opment; drainage for development, farming, or

mosquito control; dredging and stream channe-

lization for navigation, development, and ﬂood

control; diking and damming to form ponds and

lakes; diversion of ﬂow to or from wetlands; and

addition of impervious surfaces in the water-

shed. Vegetation damage can occur through

domestic animal grazing, introduction of non-

native plants that compete with natives, and

removal of vegetation for peat mining.

Wetlands, constructed The goal of con-

structed wetlands is to simulate the ecosystem

of the natural wetland. Generally on uplands

and outside ﬂoodplains or ﬂoodways, they are

built to prevent damage to natural wetlands and

other aquatic resources. After construction, water-

control structures are installed to establish the

desired hydraulic ﬂow patterns.

White goods Large household appliances

such as refrigerators, washers, and dryers.

Whole sustainable building design

Traditionally, commercial building design choi-

ces are based on budget or time considerations.

Single building components are added or

deleted to meet time or budget constraints, often

without evaluating their impact on total building

performance. Basic design goals such as mini-

mizing energy consumption or maximizing

daylight cannot be done without understanding

the impact of interrelations between parts of the

building, including window glazing systems,

thermal envelope, mechanical system integra-

tion, orientation, and ﬂoor plate proportions.

High-performance building design ideally

should be completely integrated to achieve

optimal building performance. Because these

interrelations are very complex, computerized

simulation studies are used to analyze the

design choices and interrelationships. Tools

such as DOE-2 and Energy Plus can help guide

the design process by quickly evaluating many

design alternatives. Water and resource con-

servation, along with recycled, reusable, and

nontoxic sustainable materials, should also be

considered

the design stage (see Figure 80).

See also:

DOE-2 computer simulation model;

Energy Plus

Williams alpha diversity index Created by

Robert Williams, author of Rivers: Biology Cur-

riculum Guide, the diversity index represents

the number of species and types of organism

present in a biological community. A high diver-

sity index is an indicator of good balance

258 Wetlands, constructed

between stress and natural energy ﬂow. For

example, the diversity of a creek will depend on

the weather and other resources that run into it.

Pollution can affect a creek, resulting in a

decrease in the different kinds of bugs and other

organisms.

Wind energy Also called wind power. The

process by which the wind is used to generate

mechanical power or electricity. Wind is a form

of solar energy, and wind turbines convert the

kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical

power. The mechanical power can be used for

speciﬁc tasks, such as grinding grain or pumping

water, or a generator can convert this mechanical

power into electricity.

Wind farm Large utility-scale wind turbines

grouped together into power plants and connected

to an electrical utility grid.

Wind power See:

Wind energy

Wind turbine Turbines that use the energy in the

wind to turn two or three propeller-like blades

around a rotor. The rotor is connected to the main

shaft, which spins a generator to create electricity.

Mounted on a tower to capture the most energy.

A typical wind turbine tower measures between

165 and 260 feet (50–80 m). At 100 feet (30 m)

or more above ground, they can take advantage of

faster and less turbulent wind. The blades of a

large wind turbine range from 80 to 130 feet

(25–40 m). Most large turbines have three blades.

Depending on the velocity of the wind and the

size of the blades, a large turbine can generate

electricity in a range of a few hundred kilowatts up

to several megawatts. Wind turbines can be used

to produce electricity for a single home or build-

ing, or they can be connected to an electricity

grid for more widespread electricity distribution.

Figure 80 An integrated design team

Wind turbine 259

Openmirrors.com

Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups:

the horizontal-axis variety and the vertical-axis

design, like the eggbeater-style Darrieus model,

named after its French inventor. Horizontal-axis

wind turbines typically either have two or three

blades. These three-bladed wind turbines are

operated “upwind”, with the blades facing into

the wind (see Figure 81). See also:

Darrieus wind

turbine; Horizontal-axis wind turbine

Window, electrochromic See: Electrochromic

windows

Window-to-wall ratio Ratio of the glazing area

to the gross exterior wall area.

Windscoop Architectural design of a built form

that takes advantage of the ambient energies and

maximizes natural ventilation (see Figure 82).

Wing wall A structural element built onto a

building’s exterior along the inner edges of all

the windows, and extending from the ground to

Figure 81 A wind turbine

Figure 82 Examples of windscoops

260 Window, electrochromic

the eaves. Wing walls help ventilate rooms that

have only one exterior wall, which leads to

poor cross-ventilation. Wing walls cause ﬂuc-

tuations in the natural wind direction to create

moderate pressure differences across the win-

dows. They are only effective on the windward

side of the building (see Figure 83).

Winter penalty Potential for increased heating

demand in winter due to reﬂected solar radia-

tion by light-colored roofs. In winter, cool roofs

reﬂect solar energy that could have been used

to warm the building, and more heating energy

may be required. It is usually offset by cooling

energy savings during the summer. Cool roofs

usually have a net annual energy savings.

Wood alcohol See:

Methanol

Wood, structurally engineered Structural pro-

ducts made from recycled/reconstituted wood

materials that use laminated wood chips or

strands and ﬁngerjointing (gluing larger pieces

together). These materials fall into the general

category of engineered wood.

Wood treatment Protecting wood from damage

caused by insects, moisture, and decay fungi.

Methods currently include creosote pressure-

treated wood, pentachlorophenol pressure-treated

wood, and inorganic arsenical pressure-treated

wood. Copper napthenate, zinc napthenate,

and tributyltin oxide are other wood-treatment

options that can be site-applied. All these treatment

processes involve dangerous chemicals.

World Commission on Environment and

Development (WCED) Known by the name of

its Chair, Gro Harlem Brundtland. Convened by

the United Nations in 1983 to address growing

concern “about the accelerating deterioration of

the human environment and natural resources

and the consequences of that deterioration for

economic and social development”. In estab-

lishing the commission, the UN General

Assembly recognized that environmental pro-

blems are global in nature, and determined that

it is in the common interest of all nations to

establish policies for sustainable development.

A report was published in 1987. See also:

Brundtland Report

Figure 83 Use of wing wall to increase internal

cross-ventilation

World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) 261

Xenobiota Biota displaced from its normal

habitat.

XEPS See:

Extruded polystyrene

Xeriscape Quality landscaping that conserves

water and protects the environment. There are

seven principles associated with xeriscape

landscapes: planning and design, soil improve-

ment, appropriate plant selection, practical turf

areas, efﬁcient irrigation, use of mulches, and

appropriate maintenance.

Xerophytic plants Plants that are able to sur-

vive in an ecosystem with little available water or

moisture, usually in environments where poten-

tial evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation for

all or part of the growing season. Plants such as

cacti and other succulents are typically found in

deserts where low rainfall amounts are the

norm. Plants that live under arctic conditions

may also have a need for xerophytic adapta-

tions, as water is unavailable for uptake when

the ground is frozen.

X-radiation Form of radiant energy consisting

of high-energy particles of radiation. Usually

refers to X-rays, which were discovered by

Roentgen in 1895. X-rays are ionizing radiation:

they can break down molecules by imparting

enough energy to bonding electrons to break

the valence bonds in molecules. X-rays have

useful medical applications and can also cause

cancers. See also:

Ionizing radiation

Yellow water Urine collected separately and

used directly on brown land; its nutrient

composition suits many types of soil.

Yurt An octagonal-shaped or round shelter

that originated in Mongolia, traditionally made

from leather or canvas for easy transportation.

Central Asian nomads erect their yurts in an

hour or less. Modern canvas yurts can be set up

in a day. Because they are round, they are more

efﬁcient to heat and provide less wind resis-

tance. The roof structure is an architectural

design that requires no internal support system,

providing an open and spacious interior.

ZEB See: Zero-energy building

Zener diode Special kind of diode that permits

current to ﬂow in the forward direction as normal,

but also allows it to ﬂow in the reverse direction

when the voltage is above a certain value—the

breakdown voltage, known as the Zener voltage.

See also:

Avalanche diode; Diode; Schottky diode

Zenith angle Angle between the direction of

interest, such as the Sun, and the zenith (directly

overhead).

Zero-carbon design Also known as low-carbon

design. As renewable sources of energy are

inexhaustible, clean, and carbon-free, solar, wind,

wave, biomass, geothermal, and nuclear are all

renewable sources of energy. When used in place

of nonrenewable sources of energy, the result-

ing design is known as zero-carbon design. It is

considered one solution to climate change. See

also:

Zero-energy building

Zero-culture ecosystem Design site classiﬁ-

cation measured by the condition of the existing

ecosystem. Totally artiﬁcial ecosystem sites with

no remaining ecological culture; a total urban

site with nothing of the original fauna and ﬂora

remaining.

Zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) Government

designation for a vehicle that produces no tail-

pipe pollutants, no evaporative emissions, and

no onboard emissions-control systems that can

deteriorate over time. Vehicles that fall into this

category include battery-powered electric vehi-

cles, fuel cell-operated vehicles, compressed air

vehicles, plug-in hybrids when in electric mode,

and solar-powered cars. See also:

Emissions

standards, designations

Zero-energy building (ZEB) Ability of a resi-

dential or commercial building to meet all its

energy requirements from low-cost, locally avail-

able, nonpolluting, renewable sources. ZEBs

usually use traditional energy sources such as

electric and natural gas utilities when on-site

generation does not meet the loads. When on-

site generation is greater than the building’s

loads, excess electricity is exported to the utility

grid. There is a lack of a common deﬁnition of

this term. ZEB may emphasize demand-side or

supply strategies, and whether fuel switching

and conversion accounting are appropriate to

meet a ZEB goal. There are four well documented

deﬁnitions.

 Net zero-site energy—ZEB produces at least

as much energy as it uses in a year, when

accounted for at the site.

 Net zero-source energy—source ZEB pro-

duces at least as much energy as it uses in a

year, when accounted for at the source.

Source energy is the primary energy used to

generate and deliver energy to the site. To

Figure 84 A Zener diode

calculate a building’s total source energy,

imported and exported energy is multiplied

by the appropriate site-to-source conversion

multipliers.

 Net zero energy costs—cost ZEB means

that the amount of money the utility pays

the building owner for the energy the build-

ing exports to the grid is at least equal to

the amount the owner pays the utility for the

energy services and energy used over the

year.

 Net zero energy emissions—a net ZEB

building produces at least as much emissions-

free renewable energy as it uses from

emissions-producing energy sources.

Zero liquid discharge system Process that

separates solids and dissolved constituents from

plant wastewater and allows the treated water

to be recycled or reused in the industrial pro-

cess, resulting in no discharge of wastewater to

the environment.

Zero-point energy In physics, the lowest pos-

sible energy level at absolute zero temperature

that a quantum mechanical physical system can

have; the energy of the ground state of the

system. The concept was ﬁrst proposed by

Albert Einstein and Otto Stern in 1913. All

quantum mechanical systems have a zero-point

energy. Commonly used in reference to the

ground state of the quantum harmonic oscillator

and its null oscillations. In quantum ﬁeld theory,

a synonym for vacuum energy, an amount of

energy associated with the vacuum of empty

space. See also:

Vacuum zero

ZEV See: Zero-emission vehicle

ZEV 265

Appendix 1

Conversion tables

English to Metric

English Metric

1 inch 2.54 centimeters

1 foot 0.30 meters

1 yard 0.90 meters

1 mile 1.60 kilometers

1 square inch 6.50 square

centimeters

1 square foot 0.10 square meters

1 square yard 0.80 square meters

1 acre 0.40 hectares

1 cubic foot 0.03 cubic meters

1 cord 3.60 cubic meters

1 quart 0.90 liters

1 gallon (US) 0.9 gallons (imperial)

1 gallon (imperial) 3.79 liters

1 ounce 28.40 grams

1 pound 0.50 kilograms

1 horsepower 0.70 kilowatts

Metric to English

Metric English

1 centimeter (cm) 0.39 inches

1 meter (m) 3.30 feet; 1.10 yards

1 kilometer (km) 0.60 miles

1 square centimeter (cm

) 0.20 square inches

1 square meter (m

) 10.80 square feet;

1.20 square yards

1 hectare (ha) 2.50 acres

1 cubic meter (m

) 35.30 cubic feet

1 liter (l) 1.10 quarts

1 cubic meter (m

) 284.20 gallons

1 gram (g) 0.04 ounces

1 kilogram (kg) 2.20 pounds

1 kilowatt (kW) 1.30 horsepower

Temperature conversions

From Fahrenheit to Celsius

To convert from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees

Celsius, subtract 32 degrees from the tempera-

ture and multiply by 5/9:

From Celsius to Fahrenheit

To convert from degrees Celsius to degrees

Fahrenheit, multiply the temperature by 1.8 and

add 32 degrees:

Table A1

Fahrenheit 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Centigrade –18 –12 –7 –1 4 10 16 21 27 32 38

Table A2

Centigrade -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Fahrenheit 14 23 32 41 50 59 68 77 86 95 104

Appendix 2

International Environmental Agreements

2007 Bali Roadmap Agreement of 190 parti-

cipating nations during the United Nations Fra-

mework Convention on Climate Change, held

in Bali, Indonesia in December, 2007. It sets out

a two-year process to ﬁnalize a binding agree-

ment in 2009 in Denmark. Afﬁrming scientiﬁc

evidence of global warming, the convention

addressed: i) the need to reduce emissions and

the risks of further global warming; ii) policies,

incentives, and ﬁnancial support to halt defor-

estation and forest degradation and to preserve

tropical rainforests; iii) international cooperation

to protect poorer nations against climate change

impacts; iv) assistance for developing countries

to adapt to green technologies to help them

reduce or avoid carbon pollution.

Four meetings scheduled for 2008 will develop

speciﬁc goals and strategies to implement the

Bali Roadmap and will be presented for adop-

tion in 2009. It is intended to expand the Kyoto

Protocol, the 1997 United Nations treaty on the

environment.

2003 Carpathian Convention Framework

Convention on the Protection and Sustainable

Development of the Carpathians (Coalition of

the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Roma-

nia, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovak Republic,

and Ukraine, 2003) Signed by all members. The

Carpathian Convention provides the framework

for cooperation and multi-sectoral policy coor-

dination, a platform for joint strategies for sus-

tainable development of the natural resources of

the region and preservation of biodiversity of

species unique to the area.

2002 Association of Southeast Asian Nations

(ASEAN) Agreement on Transboundary Haze

Pollution (ASEAN, 2002) Signed by all ASEAN

nations. It is an environmental agreement to

bring haze pollution under control in Southeast

Asia. It was precipitated by land clearing and

burning on Sumatra and the haze, assisted by

monsoon winds, spread to Borneo, the Malay

Peninsula, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and

Brunei.

2002 International Treaty on Plant Genetic

Resources for Food and Agriculture

(International Seed Treaty, 2002) Signed by 102

countries plus the European Union. It became

effective in 2004. It complements the Convention

on Biological Diversity. Its goals are to develop

food security through conservation and sustain-

ing plant genetic resources and biodiversity for

food and agriculture.

2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent

Organic Pollution (United Nations, 2001)

Signed by 91 countries and the European

Union. Signatories agree to eliminate the pro-

duction, use, and release of 12 key persistent

organic pollutants: aldrin, chlordane, dichlor-

odiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT), dieldrin,

endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex,

toxaphene, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),

polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (dioxins),

and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (furans). The

Convention included special provisions to

eliminate PCBs and DDT. The Convention spe-

ciﬁes a scientiﬁc review process that could