Tong W. Wind Power Generation and Wind Turbine Design
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Index
acceleration of gravity, 10–11
acoustic antenna, 167
acoustic emission, 425
acoustic energy, 156, 162, 642,
648, 651
acoustic parabola, 165–166
acoustic pressure, frequency
spectrum, 156
active twist, 476–471
actuator disc (AD), 290, 597, 598
AD, see actuator disc (AD)
adaptive
aerospace structure, 500
material, 500
rotor, 471
structure, 471
wing, 471
adhesive joint, 448–449
aerodynamics, 89–105
aeroelastic coupling, 122–123,
135–137
aeroelastic element, 136
aeroelastics, 105–115
air density, 10–11
airfoil, 29, 95–102, 160–162, 173, 174,
180, 263, 267, 384, 457, 599
ambient sound level, 650
amplitude, 153–154, 457–458, 468,
535, 648
anechoic, 168, 654
annual energy production,
336–337, 397
anti-scoring, 371
atmospheric boundary layer, 66
atmospheric circulation, 6
atmospheric stability, 67, 69, 81
atmospheric turbulence, 29, 161–162,
173, 179, 641, 645
axial induction factor, 22
azimuthal averaging, 143, 144
background noise level, 164,
652–654, 658
balance of plant (BOP), 239, 664
balsa, 421, 422
bamboo, 422, 429
battery charging control system, 273
battery energy storage (BES)
lead acid, 672–675
nickel cadmium, 675–677
sodium sulphur, 677–678
beam equation, 128
beam model, 139–141, 439–440
beam theory, 124, 125, 143, 146, 148
bearing, 520–521
belt-rib-concept, 472
bend-twist coupling, 444, 470
BES, see battery energy storage
716 Index
bend-twist coupling, 444, 470
Betz law (or Betz limit), 21–22, 95,
115, 598
birch, 422
blade, 219–223
blade element momentum aerodynamic
model, 135, 136, 144
blade element theory, 98–99, 345
blade swept area, 9–10
BOP, see balance of plant
borehole, 371, 568
boundary condition, 101, 127–128,
131, 477, 530, 572
boundary load, 133
box-girder, 420, 421–422, 426–427,
439, 440–443, 455–459
braking system, 270–271
Brazier effect, 440
broadband, 645, 646
buckling
global, 447
local, 447
mode map, 452
bucking-driven delamination,
447–448, 452–455
CAES, see compressed air energy
storage
capture ability, 411–413
carbon fi ber, 326, 383, 421–422,
429, 452
centrifugal acceleration, 130
CFD, see computational fl uid
dynamics (CFD)
channeling cracking, 449–450
charge-to-discharge ratio, 663
circumferential induction, 136
CoE, see cost of energy
coeffi cient of thermal
expansion, 482
cohesive law, 430–431, 433–434,
438, 448
Coleman transformation, 137
combined shell/solid model, 442
compliant mechanism, 473, 500
composite material, 36, 421–422, 426
compressed air energy storage
(CAES), 670–672
compressive strength, 422, 429,
431–432
computational fl uid dynamics (CFD),
70, 89, 289
condition-based monitoring, 375
control
active, 402
passive, 402
electric pitch, 26
hydraulic pitch, 25
load, 468–470
over speed, 406
power/speed, 405–407
stall, 26–27
start-up, 405
turbine, 24, 240–243
yaw, 27, 403–405
control strategy, 401–403, 409
cooling
analysis, 614
cryogenic, 311–312
design, 622
medium, 622
optimization, 622, 625–631
system, 312–313, 617–622
technology, 613–639
Coriolis force, 5–6
corrosive environment, 375
cost
capital, 193, 366–367
comparison, 325
foundation, 366, 376–377
individual, see energy storage
technology
cost of energy (CoE), 187, 303,
325–326, 383, 411
counter rotation, 339, 347, 351
coupling condition, 131
crack, 430
crack initiation, 426
cracking, 426, 430, 446, 448,
449–450
Index 717
CTQ, see product design process:
critical to quality attributes
cup anemometer, 52
angular response, 52
calibration, 58–59
overspeeding, 52
response length, 52
cumulative fatigue spectrum, 145
cyclic crack growth, 437–438, 446,
451–452
cyclic load, 435–438
damage
mode, 426
tolerant, 426
damping
tower bending, 147–148
ratio, 135, 543–544
deformation velocity, 136
demand side management, 701
delamination, 446
depth of discharge (DoD), 663
design envelope, 369
design life, 417–418
direct-drive, 18, 35–36, 303–328
discharge time, see storage capacity
displacement vector, 125
DoD, see depth of discharge
double-multiple-streamtube analysis,
290–299
double rotational armature type
generator, 333, 339–345
drive train (or drivetrain), 39,
385–386
droop nose, 473
dynamic balance, 122
dynamic equilibrium, 123, 125
dynamic equation, 122–124, 126,
127–128, 129–131
dynamic stall model, 136
edgewise, horizontal (mode), 143
edgewise, vertical (mode), 143
effective angle of attack,
135–136
effi ciency
electric, 21
gearbox, 20
generator, 21
power transmission, 20
total, 21
eigenmode, 134–135
eigenmode basis, 134
eigenvalue analysis, 133–135, 533
eigenvalues, 134–135, 530
elastic degrees of freedom, 121
elastic torsion, 135
electric vehicle (EV), 697–699
eigen mode, 134–135
elastic property, 428–429
emergency back-up, 701
end-use application, 701
energy release rate, 432–433,
437–438, 446–449
energy storage application, 699–701
energy storage component, 663–664
energy storage technology
battery (BES), 672–678
compressed air (CAES),
670–672
fl ow battery (FBES), 678–683
fl ywheel (FES), 683–685
hydrogen (HES), 689–694
pumped hydroelectric
(PHES), 665–668
supercapacitor (SCES), 685–687
superconducting magnetic (SMES),
687–689
thermal (TES), 694–697
underground (UPHES),
668–670
energy yield, 84–85
environmental footprint, 375–376
epoxy, 36, 221, 422
Euler-Bernoulli model, 125, 139
EV, see electric vehicle
extreme wind
European wind turbine
standard, 83
gumbel, 82
718 Index
failure
mechanism, 239
mode, 418, 425–428, 445
fatigue, 145, 467, 584–585
fatigue analysis, 145, 372, 548
FBES, see fl ow battery energy storage
(FBES)
FEA, see fi nite element analysis (FEA)
FES, see fl ywheel energy storage
(FES)
Ferrel cell, 5–6
fetch length, 372
fi ber, 421
fi ber bridging, 429–430, 449, 452
fi eld test, 409–411
fi nite element analysis (FEA),
211, 317
fi nite element method, 128, 529, 530
fl ap /yaw, asymmetric (mode), 143
fl ap bending, 142
fl ap bending mode, 142
fl ap, symmetric (mode), 142–143
fl ap/tilt asymmetric (mode), 143
fl apwise bending, 143–144, 444
fl exhat, 469–470
FLEX5, see wind turbine design:
modeling programs (FLEX5)
Floquet’s theory, 137
fl ow angle, 99, 347–349, 400
fl ow battery energy storage
(FBES), 678
vanadium redox, 679–680
polysulphide bromide, 680–681
zinc bromine, 681–683
fl ow inclination, 79–80
fl ow model, 70–75
fl ywheel energy storage (FES),
683–686
fracture
energy, 430, 432–435, 446–450
mechanics, 432–435
process zone, 430, 449
toughness, 429–431
frequency spectrum, 156, 496,
645–646
Froude’s law, 91
full scale testing, 423–425
Galerkin formulation, 124
gearbox
design, 509–525
gear tooth friction, 20
planetary gearbox, 20, 40
gear tooth, 510–515
gelcoat, 422, 428, 449
generator
direct drive, 306–307
double-fed induction, 339–342
induction, 270, 272
superconducting, 303–329
synchronous, 342–345, 349
geometrically non-linear, 440, 457,
459, 482
geotechnical condition, 370–371
GFRP, see glass fi bre
reinforced plastic
glass fi bre, 36, 221, 421–422, 451
glass fi bre reinforced plastic (GFRP),
215, 266, 454, 472
Goda expression, 373
Goodman fatigue, 514
gravity base foundation, 376
gravity foundation, 246, 247, 368
Green strains, 126, 139–140
GRF, see gust response factor (GRF)
grid connected control system,
271–272
grid-tie inverter, 264, 268–269
grouting, 379–380
Gurney fl ap, 470
gust response factor (GRF), 537
Hadley cell, 5–6
Hamilton’s principle, 122, 124
hand lay-up, 423
HESS, see hydrogen energy storage
system (HESS)
Hashin criteria, 445
HAWT, see wind turbine: horizontal
axis
Index 719
heat analysis, 614–616
high temperature superconductor
(HTS), 309–310
histogram, 64
HTS, see high temperature
superconductor (HTS)
HTS wire technology, 314–315
hub, 19–20
hurricane, 369–370
hybrid system, 56, 382–383
hybrid tethered system, 382–383
hydrogen energy storage system
(HESS), 689–694
IC, see infl uence coeffi cient
IEC, see International Electrotechnical
Committee type class
imperfection, 457–458
infl uence coeffi cient, 203–205
infrasound, 644–645
installation, 375
inter-annual variability, 85
interconnection, 385, 418, 664, 706,
710–711
interface averaging, 114
interface fracture, 433–434,
448, 449
internal surface loading, 124
International Electrotechnical
Committee type class, 191
IP, see wind turbine design: intellectual
property
jetting, 379–380
J integral, 430, 434, 448–451
JONSWAP spectrum, 372–373,
549, 550
junk, 7
kinematic condition, 128, 131, 133
kinetic energy, 9
kite, 8
Lagrange equation, 124
laminate, 423
Lanchester-Betz law (or
Lanchster-Betz limit), 21–22
lead-lag (edgewise) mode,
142, 143
lead-lag bending, 125
lead zirconium titanate, 478–479
Lidar
complex terrain, 51, 58
continuous wave system, 57–58
pulsed, 57, 58
linear stability, 133–135, 137
linearization, 123, 133, 136
load-carrying beam, 420
load management, 699–700
logarithmic law, 68, 69
long-term correction, 61–63
loss
bearing loss, 20
load-dependent loss, 20
no-load loss, 20
power, 20
stator iron, 325
windage, 20
main spar, 420, 439, 455–457
mass matrix, 129, 530
material, 421–423
materials testing, 431–438
matrix, 422
MEASNET, 59
measure-correlate-predict
energy index method, 63
linear regression, 63
measurement
averaging period, 60–61
fl ow distortion, 59–60
lattice mast, 60
mounting, 59–60
period, 60–61
tubular mast, 60
medium voltage, 218, 385
mechanical energy, 15, 20–22, 25, 478,
613–614
memory effect, 663
meso-scale, 49–50
720 Index
MGTP, see value analysis: multi-
generation technology plan
MHM, see wind turbine design:
machine head mass
Microtab, see gurney fl ap
mid-thickness shell model, 441–442
mixed mode, 430, 433–434, 448,
450, 459
modal mode, 442
mode I, 432–434, 438
mode II, 433–434
mode mixity, 430, 434, 449
modeling, 439–459
Monner’s fi nger mechanism, 472, 473
monopile, 567–569
morphing aerofoil, 471
mounting
fl ow distortion, 59–60
mud-line, 371
multi-body approach, 129
nacelle, 231–233
narrow-band, 156, 645, 657
natural frequency, 581–582
NCEP/NCAR, 62–63
net present value (NPV), 187
Newmark’s second order scheme, 129
noise
abatement method, 654–657
aerodynamic, 160–162
airborne, 218
boundary layer vortex shedding, 172
broadband, 645
mechanical, 158–160
self induced, 160
separation-stall, 172
standard, 657
structure-borne, 158
source, 158–162
tip vortex formation, 172
tonal, 643
trailing edge, 171–172
non-conservative load, 124
non-linear effect, 149, 439, 440
NPV, see net present value
obstacle, 70
octave band, 156–157, 160
OEM, see original equipment
manufacturer
offshore wind energy resource, 364
offshore wind turbine blade, 383
ONERA model, 136
operational modal analysis, 147
original equipment manufacturer
(OEM), 187
cost data, 218
evaluating invention potential, 249
internal research and
development, 188
margin, 193
market, 197
mitigating risk, 188
organizational structure, 199
preferred design platform, 211
product development cycle, 189, 199
scope of supply, 218, 244, 246
orography, 69–70
orthotropic material, 428–430, 452
outer surface shell model, 444
over-turning moment, 368, 374, 379
Paris-Erdogan relation, 438, 447
particle image velocimetry (PIV), 105
peak generation, 700
performance reduction, 400
permanent magnet alternator, 268–269
PHES, see pumped hydroelectric
energy storage (PHES)
Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum, 372, 549
piezo electrics, 477–478
piezo
actuator, 480–482
PVDF, 479
PZT, 478–479
pitch angle, 25–26
pitch regulation, 147, 400
PIV, see particle image velocimetry
(PIV)
plunging wave, 373
Polar cell, 5–6
Index 721
polymer, 421–422
Poisson’s ratio, 428–429, 448
polyester, 422
polymer foam, 421, 422, 429
power capacity, 662, 666
power coeffi cient, 20
power conversion coeffi cient, 20–21
power curve
Langevin, 603–607
standard, 600–603
power performance, 596–606
power law, 15, 34, 67, 80, 575
power output, 20–21
PRD, see product design process:
product requirement document
pre-preg, 423
pressure coeffi cient, 96
principle of virtual work, 127–129
product design process
critical to quality (CTQ) attributes, 201
cycles of, 205–206
defi ned, 200–201
design parameters, 201
design team role, 201
example elements of, 207
launching product, 200
market, 197
noise emission, 202
product requirement document
(PRD), 199–200
product specifi cation document
(PSD), 200
re-assessment, 200
team structure, 199
technology curve, 201–203
tollgate (TG), 197–199
progressive mode, 138
propagation, 162–163
propeller anemometer
angular response, 53
proximity microphone, 166–167
PSD, see product design process: prod-
uct specifi cation document
pumped hydroelectric energy storage
(PHES), 665–668
quality control, 390, 418, 423, 460
quite zone, 650
RAMS, see reliability, availability, and
maintenance serviceability
Rayleigh distribution, 64
re-analysis data, 62–63
reduction factor, 94
regressive mode, 138
regulatory system, 384
reliability, 208
reliability, availability, maintenance,
and serviceability (RAMS), 187
remote sensing, 51, 54
renewable energy integration, 701
response time, 663
Reynolds number, 101, 109–112, 295,
391–393
rotation matrix, 130
rotation vector, 125
rotor
multi-point optimal, 399
one-point optimal, 398–399
stability analysis, 137–139
torque transmission, 320
second order beam model,
140–141
safety factor, 459–460, 513
sandwich, 420, 422, 449, 458–459
sea depth, 366–367, 373,
376–377, 379
SCADA, see supervisory control and
data acquisition
SCES, see supercapacitor energy
storage (SCES)
sediment transportation, 371
sensor, 219
service model, 387
shaft tilting moment, 143
shape function, 128, 169,
171–172, 486
shape memory alloy (SMA)
characteristics, 482–484
modeling, 484–490
722 Index
shear failure, 428, 445
shear strength, 432
SHM, see structural health monitoring
(SHM)
signifi cant wave height, 373, 550, 588
site classifi cation
extreme wind, 82–83
IEC class, 82
SMA, see shape memory alloy (SMA)
smart rotor, 467–501
smart wing, 471–475, 477, 500
SMES, see superconducting magnetic
energy storage (SMES)
S–N curve, 435–437
spinning reserve, 700
splitting crack, 428
Sodar
bistatic, 55
complex terrain, 55
phased array, 54–55
soil condition, 367, 371, 375, 568
solar radiation, 3, 4–5, 31
sonic anemometer, 52–53
sound
intensity, 155
generation, 157
propagation, 157, 653–654
reception, 157
speed, 154
wave, 648
spar, 220, 420, 455, 457, 496
stability assessment, 146–149
static condition, 131
static load, 419, 435
stiffness, 121, 133–134
storage capacity (discharge time),
663, 666
storage medium, 663
strain, 139
strength property, 429–431
stress, 139
stress–strain relation, 125–126, 140
stress tensor, 124, 169, 307
structural design, 401
structural health monitoring
(SHM), 460
structural layout, 492
surface loading, 124
surface roughness
offshore, 68
roughness length, 68
sub-component testing, 418
suction caisson, 379
supercapacitor energy storage (SCES),
685–687
superconducting magnetic energy
storage (SMES), 687–689
supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA), 243
supervisory system, 384
surging wave, 373
Tandem wind rotor, 333–359
TAV, see test and verifi cation (TAV)
technology readiness level (TRL), 188
teeter angle, 132
TES, see thermal energy storage (TES)
tensile failure, 428, 444–445
tensile strength, 429–430, 431–432,
444
tension, 126
tension leg platform, 380–381
test
fi eld, 409–410
laboratory, 407
track, 408–409
wind tunnel, 407–408
test and verifi cation (TAV), 407–411
test method, 431–438
Tethered foundation, 380–382
TG, see product design process:
tollgates
thermal energy storage (TES)
air-conditioning, 695–695
system, 695–697
thermal management, 30, 218–219
thermoplastic composite, 492
thermosetting polymer, 422
Index 723
THM, see top head mass (THM)
tilt angle, 55
time integration
Newmark’s, 129
Runge-Kutta, 129, 548
Timoshenko beam model, 139–140
tip speed ratio, 23–24
TMD, see tuned mass damper (TMD)
Tollmien Schlichting wave, 161
top head mass (THM), 213
torsion, 125
torsion mode, 142–143
torsion, shaft (mode), 143
total value (TV), 193, 205
tower
analysis, 529–537
free standing tubular, 528
lattice, 233, 273
offshore, 547–548
overall stiffness, 528
support structure, 233
vibration control, 542
tower foundation
fl oating, 571
gravity based structure (GBS),
570–571
jacket, 570
monopile, 567–569
tripod, 569–570
traction-separation law, 429
trailing edge fl ap, 475–476
transmission and distribution
stabilization, 700
transmission
offshore, 385
upgrade deferral, 700
TRL, see technology readiness level
(TRL)
Tsai-Hill criterion, 445
tuned mass damper (TMD), 542
tunneling crack, 446
turbulence
ambient turbulence, 75–78
atmospheric stability, 76
forest, 76
mechanical turbulence, 76
offshore, 77
thermal turbulence, 76
wake induced, 78–79
turbulent separation, 70
TV, see total value
uncertainty, 85
underground pumped hydroelectric
energy storage (UPHES),
668–670
uneven solar heating, 4–5
UPHES, see underground pumped
hydroelectric energy storage
(UPHES)
ultimate strength, 252, 425, 429,
455–457
ultrasonic anemometer, 52–53
ultrasonic scanning, 425
vacuum assisted resin
transfer, 423
value analysis
computerized, 192
concept and defi nition, 193–194
cost for, 192–193
cycle, 189
importance of, 189
main framework diagram, 194
methodology, 194
multi-generation technology plan
(MGTP), 189
outline of, 194
target market settings, 250
TRL system, 188
10-turbine analysis group, 192
vane, 19–20, 27, 53, 306, 616
velocity triangle, 99
vertical wind profi le, 67, 81
vertical wind speed gradient, 80
atmospheric stability, 81–82
layout, 80–81
vinylester, 422
724 Index
virtual displacement, 127–128, 133
volume loading, 124
wake
eddy-Viscosity model of Ainslie,
84–85
N.O. Jensen model, 84
warping function, 141
WasP
displacement height, 73
ruggedness index (RIX), 74
wave breaking, 373
wavelength, 154, 166–167, 648, 652
web, 439
Weibull distribution
Weibull distribution k factor, 13
wind
condition, 395–396
direction, 14–15
energy storage, 31
gust, 14
load, 577
rose diagram, 14–15
shear, 15
shear exponent, 68, 80, 82
speed, 12
wind-concentrating system, 114
wind-diesel power generation
system, 42
wind farm, 8, 14, 28
wind-hydro hybrid system, 41–42
wind-hydrogen system, 42
windmill, 8
wind power
coeffi cient, 20
density, 11
parameter, 20–24
wind-solar hybrid system, 40–41
wind tunnel, 167–168, 353–354,
407–408, 545–546
wind turbine
blade, 16, 19–20
capacity, 17–18
capacity factor, 24
coeffi cient, 20
confi guration, 19–20
contra-rotating rotor, 37–39
cooling, 30
Darrieus, 282–285
direct drive, 18, 35–36
down-wind, 16–17
fl oating, 37
geared drive, 18
horizontal-axis, 16
large, 18
life cycle (or lifetime), 31–32
main stream, 109–110
medium, 18
micro, 18
multi-megawatt, 110–111
noise, 28–29
off-grid, 18–19
offshore, 19, 34–35
on-grid, 18–19
on-shore, 19
small, 107–109
Savonius, 280–282
vertical-axis, 16
ultra-large, 18
up-wind, 16–17
wind turbine design
acoustic and vibration, 218
blade, 219–223
certifi cation, 250
code, 250
components, 215–219
control system, 240–244
dimension, 210–211
dynamic system analysis, 219
electric transformer, 238–239
fatigue, 252
foundation and sitting, 244, 247
generator, 236–238
improvement, 189
industry study set, 190–192,
201–203
intellectual property (IP), 249
lightning, 239