The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 13: Republican China 1912-1949, Part 2
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS 9° I
about the Nationalists' war effort, treating especially the effects of military
factionalism and political demoralization, is Hsi-sheng Ch'i, Nationalist
China
at
war: military
defeats and political
collapse,
19)7-4}'. Lloyd E. Eastman also views
the Nationalists in a critical light in
Seeds
of
destruction:
Nationalist
China
in war
and
revolution,
19)7—1949.
For a symposium volume whose essays are mixed both
in quality and in their assessments of the Nationalists see Paul K. T. Sih, ed.
Nationalist
China during the Sino-Japanese
War,
1937-194}-
Some of the shrewdest
analyses of
the
Nationalists were made on the spot by a US foreign-service officer,
John S. Service, whose wartime reports have been compiled and edited by Joseph
W. Esherick in Lost
chance
in
China.
Another American, Graham Peck, viewed
wartime China from the vantage point of the common man; his
Two kinds
of time
is a rare and delightful work, filled with ironic humour and empathy for China's
ordinary folk.
On military aspects of the war, F. F. Liu's A military
history
of
modern China
provides a good survey. Dick Wilson's
When tigers
fight:
the story
of
the Sino-Japanese
War,
1937-194}
is a general, popular account. An official Nationalist version
of the war, with rather detailed descriptions of the battles, is Hsu Long-hsuen
and Chang Ming-kai, History of
the Sino-Japanese
War,
1937—194};
this work is
a synopsis of
a
ioi-volume study in Chinese edited by Hu P'u-yii and published
by the Nationalist Ministry of Defence,
ICang-Jih chan-shih
(Military history of the
anti-Japanese war). Several shorter Chinese-language military histories are
available, including Ho Ying-ch'in,
Pa-nien
k'ang-chan
chih ching-kuo
(Experiences
in the eight-year war of resistance), and
Chung-Jih chan-cheng shih-lueh
(Historical
survey of the Sino-Japanese War) prepared by the Historical Bureau of the
Ministry of Defence.
The United States military role in the China war is given near-definitive
treatment in a three-volume history by Charles
F.
Romanus and Riley Sunderland,
written under the auspices of the US Department of the Army's Office of the
Chief of Military History. The titles of these volumes, which thoroughly research
the English-language documentation, are: Stilwell's
mission
to China; Stilwell's
command
problems;
and
Time runs out
in CBI. General Joseph W. Stilwell, the key
American military officer in China during the war, is the subject of Barbara
W. Tuchman's Pulitzer Prize-winning biography, Stilwell and the American ex-
perience
in
China,
1911-4J.
Studies that examine the American role in China in a
broader, political context are Tang Tsou, America's failure in
China,
1941-/0 and,
more recent, Michael Schaller, The US
crusade
in
China,
1938-194J.
Works on the
Japanese side of the war are noted above in the essay for chapters 2 and 10.
The domestic political history of Nationalist China during the war has received
scant scholarly attention. Political institutions are examined in three works of
the 1940s-Paul M. A. Linebarger, The China of
Chiang
K'ai-shek: a political
study;
Ch'ien Tuan-sheng, The
government
and
politics
of
China;
and, with a broader
focus but less detail, Lawrence K. Rosinger,
China's
crisis.
Economic aspects of the war, and especially the inflation, receive skilled
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9O2 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
treatment in three studies: Chang Kia-ngau, The
inflationary
spiral: the
experience
in
China,
1939-19JO,
Shun-hsin Chou, The
Chinese
inflation,
19)7—1949,
and Arthur
N.
Young, China's wartime
finance
and
inflation,
1937-194;. Young, who was
financial adviser to the Nationalist government, has also written a splendid history
of the American economic involvement with wartime Nationalist China, China
and the helping
hand,
19)7—194),
which provides much information on the Chinese
economy generally. Yu-Kwei Cheng,
Foreign
trade and
industrial development
of
China: an
historical
and
integrated analysis through
1948,
is a
succinct and solidly
documented study of the modern sector of the economy.
Japan's economic policies
in
the areas
it
controlled and the reactions they
provoked are examined in Asada Kyoji, Nihon
Teikokushugika no Chugoku
-
Chugoku
senryo
chiiki kei^ai no kenkyu (China under Japanese imperialism; studies of the
economy of occupied China). Huge gaps in our understanding of the war period
remain. The cultural and social aspects, for example, have barely been touched,
and detailed studies
of
local history, which offer such great promise
for
elucidating the Nanking decade, have not begun on the Nationalist area during
the 1940s.
12.
THE CCP DURING THE WAR AGAINST JAPAN, 1937-1945
This essay tries not to duplicate citations already made in chapter 4 above or in
the essays in CHOC 12. It also tries to avoid the writings and biographical studies
of Mao Tse-tung that are discussed in chapter 14 below.
There are no large-scale collections of documents covering the entire period
between 1921 and 1949. Brandt, Schwartz and Fairbank,
A
documentary history
of
Chinese
communism,
was a very early reconnaissance (1952), though still a useful
introduction. Much the same
is
true of Chao Kuo-chiin, Agrarian
policy
of
the
Chinese Communist
Party,
1921-1919.
By the 1960s Hsueh Chun-tu, ed. The
Chinese
communist movement
(vol.
1.
1921-1937;
vol.
2.
1937-1949)
provided
a
general
entree
to
Chinese-language materials, based on the excellent collection
of
the
Hoover Institution at Stanford University. Also useful is Edward J. M. Rhoads
et al., eds. The
Chinese
Red Army,
1927—1963;
an
annotated
bibliography.
Documentary and other materials
on
'party history'
{tang-shih)
have been
published in China at a gradually increasing rate. Because of the many sensitivities
of this subject, however, publication has lagged behind that in most conventional
academic fields, and some of it is limited to 'internal circulation'
{nei-pufa-hsing).
One regular periodical devoted entirely
to
party history
is
Tang-shih jen-chiu
(Research on party history). Two
series,
published at irregular intervals, are
Ko-ming
hui-i lu (The revolution remembered), and
Tang-shih jen-chiu
t^u-liao (Research
materials on party history). An eight-volume collection of documents which spans
the three decades under review here
is
Chung-kung tang-shih
ts'an-k'ao t^u-liao
(Reference materials
on the
history
of
the CCP).
Of
similar scope
is the
three-volume
Chung-kung tang-shih chiao-hsueh ts'an-k'ao
t^u-liao
(Reference materials
for instruction in the history of the CCP).
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS 903
The evolution of the second united front is covered in Van Slyke,
Enemies and
friends,
the
united front in
Chinese Communist
history.
The most dramatic and crucial
event in this evolution
—
the Sian incident
—
was reported contemporaneously in
James Bertram, First act in China: the story of the Sian mutiny. The most
comprehensive account is Wu Tien-wei,
The Sian
Incident:
a
pivotal point in
modern
Chinese history
(see also his survey of new materials on the Sian incident in
Modern
China, 10.1 (Jan. 1984).
Efforts to theorize about this first great peasant revolution of the twentieth
century began with Chalmers Johnson's seminal
Peasant nationalism and communist
power: the
emergence
of
revolutionary
China,
1937-194}.
Reacting against Johnson's
argument that CCP victory was based primarily on a war-induced nationalist
mobilization rather than on a revolutionary imperative within modern Chinese
society was Mark Selden, The
Yenan way in revolutionary
China,
a work which drew
general conclusions from examination of the headquarters territorial base,
Shen-Kan-Ning. A third effort to explain CCP success during the war was that
of Tetsuya Kataoka, Resistance and
revolution
in China: the communists and the
second
united
front; Kataoka argued that the CCP imposed a 'frame of steel' around
cellular and apolitical organizational networks long present in rural China, while
in urban China, the imperatives of nationalism prevented Chiang Kai-shek from
either vigorous anti-Communist operations or peace with Japan. These early
formulations can be considered at best only partially valid, and hence unsatisfactory
as general explanations. Several studies of Communist base areas provide
historical perspectives: Stephen Averill, 'The shed people and the opening of
the Yangzi highlands' and 'Revolution in the highlands: the rise of the
Communist movement in Jiangxi province'; Robert Marks, 'Peasant society and
peasant uprisings in South China: social change in Haifeng County, 1630—1930';
and Linda Grove,' Rural society in revolution: the Gaoyang district, 1910-1947'.
Ph.D.
dissertations on the history of specific base areas behind Japanese lines
include Kathleen Hartford and Carl Dorris for Chin-Ch'a-Chi, Ch'en Yung-fa
and Gregor Benton for the Central China bases, and David Paulson for the
Shantung base. Supplementing Selden for the Shen-Kan-Ning base are Peter
Schran, Guerrilla
economy:
the
development
of
the
Shensi-Kansu-Ninghsia Border Region,
1937-194J,
and Andrew Watson's translation of Mao's ' Economic and financial
problems' (1942). The many observer accounts of the war in and around the
Communist base areas are clustered in the first few years of the war and once
again during its last two years. The difficult middle years went almost unobserved
by Westerners except for the writings of Michael Lindsay, especially
The unknown
war:
north
China,
1937-194!.
Out of the extensive publications in China on this
period we can cite in this space only examples such as P'eng Te-huai t^u-shu
(Autobiography of P'eng Te-huai) and Hsueh Mu-ch'iao,
Shan-tung chieh-fang-ch'ii
ti
ching-chi kung-tso
(Economic work in the Shantung liberated area). The August
1984 international conference on the anti-Japanese base areas will produce further
publication.
For a description and guide to the holdings of the Bureau of Investigation in
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
9°4 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
Taiwan see Donovan, Dorris and Sullivan,
Chinese communist materials
at
the Hureau
of
Investigation
Archives,
Taiwan.
The official Japanese military history,
Hokushi no
chiansen
(North China war of pacification), 2 vols., is filled with valuable data.
Annual volumes of
Foreign relations
of the United States contain much more
information about the CCP, particularly in its relations with the Nationalist
government and the Kuomintang. The perspective in James B. Reardon-
Anderson, Yenan and the Great Powers: the
origins
of
Chinese
Communist foreign policy,
1944-1946,
is carried through to 1949 by a number of the essays in Dorothy Borg
and Waldo Heinrichs, eds. Uncertain years:
Chinese-American
relations,
1947-19JO.
13.
THE KMT-CCP CONFLICT I945-I949
The two preceding essays on the Nationalist government and the Communist
movement respectively have described major Chinese sources thus far available
for research on the post-Second World War and civil war period. One may
confidently expect further documents and studies to emerge from the archives
in Nanking, Taipei and elsewhere.
A selection of studies on various aspects of pre-1949 military history has been
translated into English under the auspices of the Office of the Chief of Military
History, US Department of the Army. These studies were originally written in
Taiwan, based on materials available in military archives there. The selection is
available on microfilm from the US Library of Congress under the title ' Chinese
military studies and materials in English translation'.
Also available on microfilm from the Library of Congress are the US Consular
press translations series for the 1945—9 period. The series covers the press of
several KMT cities and radio broadcasts from Communist-held territory, but
contains few items from Communist news publications of the period. The two
most important of these were
Chieh-fangjib-pao
(Liberation daily) and
Ch'un-cbung
(The masses). Nor are news magazines adequately covered by the press
translations series. The best English-language periodical of the period was the
China Weekly
Review.
The leading Chinese journal of news and commentary was
the Shanghai publication,
Kuan-ch'a
(The observer), also regarded during the
period as one of the few popularly available sources of information on the
progress of the war, due to the journal's authoritative military
contacts.
The above
sources, together with the US State Department's
Foreign relations
of
the
US series,
reflect the paucity of information available in KMT cities, both about the
Communists and about the war
itself,
a fact of contemporary history which may
escape latter-day historians as they probe the extensive archival sources now
available on both subjects.
On American China policy in the 1940s there is already a vast literature, as
indicated in essay 2/10 above. For an historical approach to the 'loss of China'
issue, one illuminating recent study is Michael H. Hunt, The
making
of
a special
relationship:
the
United States and China
to
1914,
which puts Christian missions to
China, Chinese anti-missionary incidents, the Chinese-exclusion movements in
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS 905
the United States and Sino-American diplomatic relations into a common
framework. The basic narrative for the American war effort in China in the 1940s
is the three-volume official history of the China-Burma-India theatre by Charles
Romanus and Riley Sunderland. The most popular background reading on the
period is Barbara Tuchman's
Stilwell and the American experience
in
China,
1911-4j.
For a 60-page bibliography of American manuscript collections, government
archives, published documentation, intelligence reports, dissertations, oral
histories, articles and books, see Nancy Bernkopf Tucker,
Patterns
in the dust:
Chinese-American relations and the
recognition
controversy,
14. MAO TSE-TUNG'S THOUGHT TO 1949
Under this special topic we try to avoid repeating items cited under sections 4
and 12 above. The documentation available on this protean subject, especially
the full texts of Mao's writings, has at least tripled in quantity since the early
1970s. The flood of new historical information gives us a deeper perspective on
Mao's ideas. Though his policies post-1949 have been called most into question,
several earlier issues have also arisen. For example, the date of Mao Tse-tung's
effective conversion to Marxism, his attitudes toward the Li Li-san line in 1930
and toward the Fukien rebels in 1933 have been the object of an extremely lively
debate among Chinese scholars, especially in internal publications such
as Tang-shih
yen-chiu
(Research on party history). The main change regarding Mao's intellectual
development down to 1949 lies, however, in the availability of new materials.
Before the early 1970s, the sources available on Mao's thought prior to the
establishment of the Chinese People's Republic consisted essentially of the four
volumes of the
Selected works
(in Chinese, English, and various other languages),
plus those writings published in books or periodicals from the 1920s to the 1940s
which could be found in libraries outside China. Although a fair proportion of
items in the second category were available somewhere, they were so scattered
among widely separated centres that the cost in time and money of using them
systematically was very nearly prohibitive. The first great breakthrough took place
in
1970-1,
when the 10-volume edition of Mao's writings from 1917 to 1949 was
published in Tokyo: Mao
Tse-tung
chi (Collected writings of Mao Tse-tung).
Unfortunately, the press run of this edition was very small, and it was thus not
widely available outside the major Sinological libraries. However, Professor
Minoru Takeuchi and those associated with him in this enterprise have not only
been able to reissue the original ten volumes, with minor corrections, under a
new imprint, but have embarked on the publication of
a
number of supplementary
volumes containing entirely new materials (Mao
Tse-tung
chi, pu
chiiari).
Six
volumes had been published under this title by October
1984,
and further volumes
were scheduled to appear at two-monthly intervals. In the end, there will be a
total of eight supplementary volumes, instead of the five originally announced,
plus a chronological volume; the complete set will thus comprise 19 volumes.
At the same time, the Chinese themselves have begun to publish a number
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
906 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
of Mao's writings, especially from his pre-Marxist period, but including also
important items from the years 1921—49. Some of these items are to be found
in internal
{nei-pu)
collections such as I-ta
ch'ien-hou
(Before and after the First
Congress) and Hsin-min
hsueh-hui
t^u-liao
(Materials on the New People's Study
Society). There are, however, many extremely interesting and previously
unknown texts in the collection of Mao's letters published on his 90th birthday,
Mao
Tse-tung shu-hsin hsuan-chi
(Selected letters of Mao Tse-tung), and in other
volumes on particular themes published, or to be published, under the auspices
of the agency responsible for the compilation of the writings of leaders such as
Mao Tse-tung, Liu Shao-ch'i, Chou En-lai, Chu Te, Teng Hsiao-p'ing, and Ch'en
Yun: the Chung-kung chung-yang wen-hsien yen-chiu-shih (Research Centre on
party literature under the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party).
These circumstances make all the existing works on Mao (including even the
most recent) at least partially out of
date.
Despite the lacunae in the documentation,
however, a number of authors have formulated basic issues in thought-provoking
fashion, and sketched out hypotheses which will be of great value in guiding
future research. The following is a
brief,
selective list of some significant
contributions.
Of the works dealing in systematic fashion with all, or a substantial portion
of, the period down to 1949, the most recent, thoughtful, and balanced is that
of Brantly Womack,
The foundations
of
Mao Zedong's political
thought,
1917-19};.
Although this book stops in 1935, and fails to use some key sources on the years
1917-21,
it is nonetheless the best available introduction to Mao's thought during
his formative years. John Bryan Starr's
Continuing the
revolution:
the
political thought
of
Mao
is marred by the author's tendency to treat everything Mao wrote from
the 1920s to the 1970s as a single corpus, from which quotations can be selected
at random to illustrate various aspects of his thought conceived in largely
a-historical terms. It contains, however, thoughtful comments, and a useful
compilation of materials. Another book covering the whole of Mao's pre-1949
intellectual development, as well as his ideas after 1949, is that of James Chieh
Hsiung,
Ideology
and practice. The
evolution
of
Chinese
communism, an interesting and
original interpretation, even though the view of
ssu-hsiang
or thought (as in Mao
Tse-tung thought) as a type of intellectual activity different in kind from the
systematic doctrines ('isms' or chu-i) common in the West (such as Marxism),
in keeping with traditional Chinese patterns is controversial. (The Chinese, for
their part, insist that Mao's thought
does
constitute a system.) Hsiung's study
is assuredly one of the best in the field. S. Schram's
The political thought
of
Mao
Tse-tung
and
Mao
Zedong:
a
preliminary reassessment
both deal to a substantial extent
with Mao's thought before 1949, but are both somewhat out of date as regards
documentation.
Regarding the earliest years, the best single contribution is Li Jui,
Mao Tse-tung
ti
tsao-ch'i ko-ming huo-tung
(The early revolutionary activities of Mao Tse-tung),
which devotes several chapters to Mao's thoughts from 1915 to
1927.
Other works
are Frederick Wakeman's
History and
will: philosophical
perspectives
of Mao
Tse-tung's
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS 907
thought,
mainly devoted to the pre-Marxist period, though it also touches on the
Cultural Revolution; and Giorgio Mantici,
Pensieri delfiume
Xiang (Thoughts of
the Hsiang River), a complete translation of the periodical edited by Mao in 1919,
the Hsiang River Review. Benjamin Schwartz's Chinese communism and the rise of
Mao
also offers profound and subtle insights, despite the limitations imposed by
a documentary basis thirty years out of date. Finally, Ray Wylie's The
emergence
of
Maoism
is the best available work on Mao's thought during the Yenan period.
It is thoughtful and well-documented, and focuses squarely on the problem of
the relation between the development of Mao's thought and the matrix of
political struggle within which it took shape.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHINESE AND JAPANESE PUBLISHERS
Cheng-chung
IE
4"
(Taipei)
Chuan-chi wen-hsueh flffEXP (Taipei)
Chung-hua (CH)
tp^e
(major cities)
Chung-kuo she-hui k'o-hsueh ch'u-pan-she ^Htt^r^PfflJigfcfc (Peking)
Commercial Press (CP) j&^ftl^tt (major cities)
Jen-min
AS
(Shanghai
and
other cities)
San-lien (Sheng-huo, Tu-shu, Hsin-chih
(Peking, Shanghai)
Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai
Wen-hai
%M
(Taipei)
An inbuilt ambiguity haunts
any
bibliography
of
Chinese writings: entries
that
are
immediately intelligible
to the
reader
of
English, like
Central
Daily
News
or
Liberation Daily,
are not
directly clued
to the
Chinese characters
in
which
the
originals
are
written
{Chmg-yang
jih-pao, Chieh-fang
jih-pao).
Yet
on
the
other hand
an
entry like
Chin-tai
shihyen-chiu-so,
though more accurate
in
the
esoteric script
of
romanization, may
be
translated variously as Modern
History Institute
or
Institute
of
Modern History.
In
this situation
we
have
put romanized accuracy ahead
of
English-translated intelligibility,
but
with
occasional cross-references.
Another problem
is
that large compilations
of
documents
are
usually
edited
by
committees, departments
or
other institutional organs,
so
that
listing such works
by
compiler
or
editor would confront
the
reader with
many words
but
little information.
In
such cases
we
prefer
to
list
by
title.
Compilers
and
editors are then cited
in the
body
of
the entry.
WORKS CITED
Abe Yoshinori
^%fkM,
trans. 'Anki tochi chosa nikki' ^^S±ffiPSBfE
(A diary
of
land investigation
in
Anhwei), part
z, in
SMR:
Mantetsu chosa
geppo,
19.1
(Jan. 1939)
118-36
Abend, Hallett
et
al. Can
China survive?
New
York: Ives Washburn,
1936
Academia Sinica. See Chung-yang yen-chiu yuan
908
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
BIBLIOGRAPHY
909
Academy
of
Social Sciences. See Chung-kuo she-hui k'o-hsueh yuan
Ai Ssu-ch'i
3tS^f.
Ta-chung che-hsueh
j^g^ (Philosophy
for
the masses).
Shanghai: Tu-shu sheng-huo, 1936
Ai Ssu-ch'i. Che-hsueh
yusheng-huo
HfPI&i^iffi (Philosophy and life). Shanghai:
Tu-shu sheng-huo, 1937
Alitto, Guy
S.
'Rural elites
in
transition: China's cultural crisis
and the
problem
of
legitimacy',
in
Susan Mann Jones, ed.
Select papers
from the
Center for Tar
'Eastern
Studies,
University
of
Chicago, 3 (1978-9) 218-75
Alitto, Guy
S.
The last
Confucian:
Liang
Shu-ming
and the
Chinese dilemma
of
modernity.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978
Altman, Albert A. and Schiffrin, Harold Z. 'Sun Yat-sen and the Japanese:
1914-16'.
Modern
Asian
Studies,
6.4 (Oct. 1972) 385-400
Amano Motonosuke JftMyciLty}. Shina
nogyo
keizai
ron ^MfOkWkMtMWii
(On
the Chinese agricultural economy). Tokyo: Kaizosha gStiatt, vol.
1,
1940
and vol. 2, 1942
Amano Motonosuke. Shina
noson
zakki jSSSjitt^SSfB (Miscellaneous notes
on Chinese villages). Tokyo: Seikatsusha ^feStt, 1942
Amano Motonosuke.
Chugoku nogyo no shomondai
^SHIII^SJFRISI (Problems
of Chinese agriculture). 2 vols. Tokyo: Gihodo
^M&,
1952
Amano Motonosuke.
Chugoku nogyo
shi kenkyii ^WBSk^iffl^
(A
study
of
the history
of
Chinese agriculture). Tokyo: Ochanomizu, IS^^TK, 1962
Amano Motonosuke.
Chugoku nogyo
no chiiki teki tenkai •t'HJS^^ife^W
HP!
(Regional development
of
Chinese agriculture). Ryukei shosha $t§§
H#, 1979
Amerasia: a
monthly analysis
of America and Asia. New York: Amerasia, Inc.
11 vols. March 1937
-
July 1947. Superseded
China Today
(subtitle varies).
Ed. by P. Jaffe and others
The
Amerasia
papers:
a
clue
to
the catastrophe
of
China.
2 vols. Prepared by the
Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act
and Other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, United
States Senate. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1970
Amoy University. See Hsia-men ta-hsueh
Arkush, R. David. Fei
Xiaotong and sociology
in
revolutionary
China.
Cambridge,
Mass.:
Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1981
Asada Kyoji
SIESSf—•
Nihon
Teikokushugika no Chugoku—Chugoku senryo
chiiki
keizai no kenkyii 0^i^Hi8T©4
]
B—4
l
HiS^%^S^f^
)
W^ (China
under Japanese imperialism: studies
of
the economy of occupied China).
Tokyo: Rakuyu shobo gj6$fH2i, 1981
Ash, Robert. Land
tenure inpre-revolutionary
China:
Kiangsuprovince
in
the
1920s
and ipjos. London: Contemporary China Institute, School
of
Oriental
and African Studies, University of London, 1976
Atwell, William. 'Notes on silver, foreign trade, and the late Ming economy'.
CSWT 3.8 (Dec. i977)i-33
Aubert, Claude, Bianco, Lucien, Cadart, Claude, and Domenach, Jean-Luc.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
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