Richard L. Daft - Management. 9th ed., 2010

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

PART 1 INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT30

Studies 21 (1984): 323–330; J

ohn

P. Kotter, “What Effective General

Managers Really Do,” Harvard Busi-

ness Review (November–December

1982): 156–167; and Morgan W.

McCall, Jr., Ann M. Morrison, and

Robert L. Hannan, “Studies of Man-

agerial Work: Results and Methods,”

Technical Report No. 9, Center for

Creative Leadership, Greensboro,

NC, 1978.

Alison M. Konrad, Roger Kashlak, 36.

Izumi Yoshioka, Robert Waryszak,

and Nina Toren, “What Do Manag-

ers Like to Do? A Five-Country

Study,” Group and Organizational

Management 26, no. 4 (December

2001): 401–433.

For a review of the problems faced 37.

by ﬁ rst-time managers, see Linda A.

Hill, “Becoming the Boss,” Harvard

Business Review (January 2007):

49–56; Loren B. Belker and Gary S.

Topchik, The First-Time Manager:

A Practical Guide to the Manage-

ment of People, 5th ed. (New York:

AMACOM, 2005); J. W. Lorsch and

P. F. Mathias, “When Professionals

Have to Manage,” Harvard Busi-

ness Review (July–August 1987):

78–83; R. A. Webber, Becoming a

Courageous Manager: Overcoming

Career Problems of New Managers

(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice

Hall, 1991); D. E. Dougherty, From

Technical Professional to Corporate

Manager: A Guide to Career Transi-

tion (New York: Wiley, 1984); J.

Falvey, “The Making of a Manager,”

Sales and Marketing Management

(March 1989): 42–83; M. K. Badawy,

Developing Managerial Skills in

Engineers and Scientists: Succeeding

as a Technical Manager (New York:

Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982); and

M. London, Developing Managers:

A Guide to Motivating and Prepar-

ing People for Successful Managerial

Careers (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,

1985).

Erin White, “Learning to Be the 38.

Boss; Trial and Error Is the Norm as

New Managers Figure Out How to

Relate to Former Peers,” The Wall

Street Journal, November 21, 2005.

This discussion is based on Linda 39.

A. Hill, Becoming a Manager: How

New Managers Master the Chal-

lenges of Leadership, 2nd ed.

(Boston, MA: Harvard Business

School Press, 2003), pp. 6–8; and

L.A. Hill, “Becoming the Boss,”

Harvard Business Review (January

2007): 49–56.

See also “Boss’s First Steps,” sidebar 40.

in White, “Learning to Be the Boss”;

and Belker and Topchik, The First-

Time Manager.

Jeanne Whalen, “Chance Turns 41.

a Teacher into a CEO; Religion

Lecturer Leaves Academic Path and

Learns to Run a Biotech Start-Up,”

Theory & Practice column, The

Wall Street Journal, October 17,

2005.

Henry Mintzberg, “Managerial 42.

Work: Analysis from Observation,”

Management Science 18 (1971):

B97–B110.

Based on Damien Cave, “A Tall Or-43.

der for a Marine: Feeding the Hand

That Bit You,” The New York Times,

December 30, 2007.

Mintzberg, “Managerial Work.”44.

Matthew Boyle and Jia Lynn Yang, 45.

“All in a Day’s Work,” Fortune

(March 20, 2006): 97–104.

Spielberg, “The Cheesecake Factory.”46.

Lance B. Kurke and Howard E. 47.

Aldrich, “Mintzberg Was Right!: A

Replication and Extension of The

Nature of Managerial Work,” Man-

agement Science 29 (1983): 975–984;

Cynthia M. Pavett and Alan W. Lau,

“Managerial W

ork: The Inﬂ uence of

Hierarchical Level and Functional

Specialty,” Academy of Management

Journal 26 (1983): 170–177; and

Colin P. Hales, “What Do Manag-

ers Do? A Critical Review of the

Evidence,” Journal of Management

Studies 23 (1986): 88–115.

Mintzberg, “Rounding out the Man-48.

ager’s Job.”

Andy Serwer, “Inside the Rolling 49.

Stones Inc.,” Fortune (September 30,

2002): 58–72.

Valerie Darroch, “High Flyer with 50.

Feet on Home Ground; Gorbals-

Born Stephen Baxter Combines

His Role as Glasgow Airport Boss

with Heading the City’s Chamber

of Commerce,” Sunday Herald,

February 6, 2005.

Harry S. Jonas III, Ronald E. Fry, and 51.

Suresh Srivastva, “The Ofﬁ ce of the

CEO: Understanding the Executive

Experience,” Academy of Manage-

ment Executive 4 (August 1990):

36–48.

Carol Hymowitz, “Smart Execu-52.

tives Shed Some Traditional Tasks to

Focus on Key Areas,” The Wall Street

Journal, June 19, 2006.

Edward O. Welles, “There Are No 53.

Simple Businesses Anymore,” The

State of Small Business (1995):

66–79.

This section is based on Peter F. 54.

Drucker, Managing the Non-Pro t

Organization: Principles and Prac-

tices (New York: HarperBusiness,

1992); and Thomas Wolf, Manag-

ing a Nonpro t Organization (New

York: Fireside/Simon & Schuster,

1990).

Christine W. Letts, William P. Ryan, 55.

and Allen Grossman, High Perfor-

mance Nonpro t Organizations

(New York: Wiley & Sons, 1999), pp.

30–35.

Carol Hymowitz,“In Sarbanes-56.

Oxley Era, Running a Nonproﬁ t

Is Only Getting Harder,” The

Wall Street Journal, June 21, 2005;

and Bill Birchard, “Nonproﬁ ts by

the Numbers,” CFO (June 2005):

50–55.

This section is based on “The 57.

New Organization: A Survey of

the Company,” The Economist

(January 21, 2006); Harry G.

Barkema, Joel A. C. Baum, and

Elizabeth A. Mannix, “Manage-

ment Challenges in a New Time,”

Academy of Management Jour-

nal 45, no. 5 (2002): 916–930;

Michael Harvey and M. Ronald

Buckley, “Assessing the ‘Conven-

tional Wisdoms’ of Management

for the 21st Century Organiza-

tion,” Organizational Dynamics

30, no. 4 (2002): 368–378; and

Toby J. Tetenbaum, “Shifting Para-

digms: From Newton to Chaos,”

Organizational Dynamics (Spring

1998): 21–32.

Caroline Ellis, “The Flattening Cor-58.

poration,” MIT Sloan Management

Review (Summer 2003): 5.

Christopher Rhoads and Sara Silver, 59.

“Working at Home Gets Easier,”

The Wall Street Journal, December

29, 2005; Edwards, “Wherever You

Go, You’re on the Job”; and Kelley

Holland, “When Work Time Isn’t

Face Time,” The New York Times, De-

cember 3, 2006.

Kerr Inkson,

Angela Heising, and 60.

Denise M. Rousseau, “The Interim

CHAPTER 1 INNOVATIVE MANAGEMENT FOR TURBULENT TIMES 31

Introduction

Manager: Prototype of the 21st

Century Worker,” Human Relations

54, no. 3 (2001): 259–284.

Keith H. Hammonds, “Smart, 61.

Determined, Ambitious, Cheap:

The New Face of Global

Competition,” Fast Company

(February 2003): 91–97.

Holland, “When Work Time Isn’t 62.

Face Time.”

Carla Johnson, “Managing Virtual 63.

Teams,” HR Magazine (June 2002):

69–73; “The New Organisation,” The

Economist (January 21, 2006).

Holland, “When Work Time Isn’t 64.

Face Time.”

chapter2pt1

Learning Outcomes

Chapter Outline

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Understand how historical forces inﬂ

uence the practice of management.

2. Identify and explain major developments in the history of management

thought.

3. Describe the major components of the classical and humanistic man-

agement perspectives.

4. Discuss the management science perspective and its current use in

ganizations.

5. Explain the major concepts of systems theory, the contingency view, and

tot

al quality management.

6. Explain what a learning organization is and why this approach has

become impor

tant in recent years.

7. Describe the management changes brought about by a technology-

driven wor

kplace, including the role of supply chain management, cus-

tomer relationship management, and outsourcing.

Are You a New-Style or an Old-Style

Manager?

Management and Organization

Classical P

erspective

Scientiﬁ c

Management

Bureaucratic Organizations

Administrative Principles

Humanistic Perspective

Human Relations Movement

Human Resources P

erspective

Behavioral Sciences Approach

New Manager Self-Test: Evolution of Style

Management Science P

erspective

Recent Historical Trends

Systems Theory

Contingency View

otal Quality Management

Innovative Management Thinking For

urbulent Times

The Learning Organization

Managing the T

echnology-Driven

Workplace

The Evolution of

Management Thinking

Controlling

Planning

Environment

Organizing

Leading

Introduction

ARE YOU A NEW-STYLE OR AN OLD-STYLE MANAGER?

The following are various behaviors that a manager may

engage in when relating to subordinates. Read each state-

ment carefully and rate each one Mostly True or Mostly False

to reﬂ ect the extent to which you would use that behavior.

Mostly

True

Mostly

False

1. Closely supervise my subordinates

in order to get better work from

them.

2. Set the goals and objectives for

my subordinates and sell them on

the merits of my plans.

3. Set up controls to ensure that my

subordinates are getting the job

done.

4. Make sure that my subordinates’

work is planned out for them.

5. Check with my subordinates daily

to see if they need any help.

6. Step in as soon as reports indi-

cate that the job is slipping.

7. Push my people to meet sched-

ules if necessary.

8. Have frequent meetings to learn

from others what is going on.

SCORING AND INTERPRETATION: Add the total

number of Mostly True answers and mark your score on

the scale below. Theory X tends to be “old-style” manage-

ment and Theory Y “new-style,” because the styles are

based on different assumptions about people. To learn

more about these assumptions, you can refer to Exhibit

2.4 and review the assumptions related to Theory X and

Theory Y. Strong Theory X assumptions are typically con-

sidered inappropriate for today’s workplace. Where do

you ﬁ t on the X–Y scale? Does your score reﬂ ect your per-

ception of yourself as a current or future manager?

X-Y Scale

Theory X 10 5 0 Theory Y

The  eld of management is undergoing tremendous change. The questionnaire you

just completed describes two differing philosophies about how people should be man-

aged, and you will learn more about these ideas in this chapter. Both approaches still

apply in today’s organizations. However, many managers  nd themselves caught in

a situation where the methods and patterns that kept the organization successful in

the past no longer seem right to keep it thriving today and into the future.

Management philosophies and organizational forms change over time to meet

new needs. The workplace of today is different from what it was 50 years ago—

indeed, from what it was even 10 years ago. Yet some ideas and practices from the

past are still highly relevant and applicable to management.

Many students wonder why history matters to managers. A historical perspective

provides a broader way of thinking, a way of searching for patterns and determining

whether they recur across time periods. For example, certain management practices

that seem modern, such as open-book management or employee stock ownership, have

actually been around for a long time. These techniques have repeatedly gained and lost

popularity since the early twentieth century because of historical forces.

A study of the

past contributes to understanding both the present and the future. It is a way of learning

from others’ mistakes so as not to repeat them; learning from others’ successes so as to

repeat them in the appropriate situation; and most of all, learning to understand why

things happen to improve our organizations in the future.

This chapter provides an overview of the ideas, theories, and management philos-

ophies that have contributed to making the workplace what it is today. We examine

PART 1 INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT34

several management approaches that have been popular and successful throughout

the twentieth century. The  nal section of the chapter looks at some recent trends and

current approaches that build on this foundation of management understanding. This

foundation illustrates that the value of studying management lies not in learning cur-

rent facts and research but in developing a perspective that will facilitate the broad,

long-term view needed for management success.

MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION

Studying history doesn’t mean merely arranging events in chronological order; it

means developing an understanding of the impact of societal forces on organiza-

tions. Studying history is a way to achieve strategic thinking, see the big picture, and

improve conceptual skills. Let’s start by examining how social, political, and eco-

nomic forces have in uenced organizations and the practice of management.

Social forces refer to those aspects of a culture that guide and in uence relation-

ships among people. What do people value? What do people need? What are the

standards of behavior among people? These forces shape what is known as the social

contract, which refers to the unwritten, common rules and perceptions about relation-

ships among people and between employees and management.

A signi cant social force today is the changing attitudes, ideas, and values of Gen-

eration Y employees (sometimes called Nexters).

These young workers, the most edu-

cated generation in the history of the United States, grew up technologically adept and

globally conscious. Unlike many workers of the past, they typically are not hesitant to

question their superiors and challenge the status quo. They want a work environment

that is challenging and supportive, with access to cutting-edge technology, opportu-

nities to learn and further their careers and personal goals, and the power to make

substantive decisions and changes in the workplace. In addition, Gen Y workers have

prompted a growing focus on work/life balance, re ected in trends such as telecom-

muting,  extime, shared jobs, and organization-sponsored sabbaticals.

Political forces refer to the in uence of political and legal institutions on people

and organizations. Political forces include basic assumptions underlying the political

system, such as the desirability of self-government, property rights, contract rights,

the de nition of justice, and the determination of innocence or guilt of a crime. The

spread of capitalism throughout the world has dramatically altered the business

landscape. The dominance of the free-market system and growing interdependencies

among the world’s countries require organizations to operate differently and manag-

ers to think in new ways. At the same time, strong anti-American sentiments in many

parts of the world create challenges for U.S. companies and managers.

Economic forces pertain to the availability, production, and distribution of

resources in a society. Governments, military agencies, churches, schools, and busi-

ness organizations in every society require resources to achieve their goals, and eco-

nomic forces in uence the allocation of scarce resources. One trend is the growing

economic power of less-developed countries. The rapid growth of China and India

and their rise in the global marketplace dominated the 2007 World Bank-International

Monetary Fund annual meetings, for example.

Another force is the shifting of the

economy of the United States and other developed countries, with the sources of

wealth, the fundamentals of distribution, and the nature of economic decision making

undergoing signi cant changes. Today’s economy is based as much on ideas, informa-

tion, and knowledge as it is on material resources. Supply chains and distribution of

resources have been revolutionized by digital technology. Surplus inventories, which

once could trigger recessions, are declining or completely disappearing.

As a new manager, do you appreciate a historical perspective to help you interpret

current opportunities and problems? Social, economic, and political forces often

repeat themselves, so your understanding will facilitate a broader view of how

organizations adapt and succeed in today’s environment.

TakeaMoment

soc

l f

ces

he as

ects of

ture that guide and inﬂ uenc

ationships amon

people

—

eir values, needs, and standar

beh

avi

or.

olitical forces

he inﬂ uenc

political and legal institution

people and or

anizations.

conomic

orces Forces t

ect t

e avai

ity, pro

uctio

distribution of a society’s re

rces amon

use

CHAPTER 2 THE EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THINKING 35

Introduction

Management practices and perspectives vary in response to these social, political,

and economic forces in the larger society. During dif cult times, managers look for

ideas to help them cope with environmental turbulence and keep their organizations

vital. The Manager’s Shoptalk lists a wide variety of ideas and techniques used by

today’s managers. Management idea life cycles have been growing shorter as the

pace of change has increased. A recent study by professors at the University of Loui-

siana at Lafayette found that, from the 1950s to the 1970s, it typically took more than a

decade for interest in a popular management idea to peak. By the 1990s, the interval

had shrunk to fewer than three years.

Over the history of management, many fashions and

fads have appeared. Critics argue that new techniques

may not represent permanent solutions. Others feel

that managers adopt new techniques for continuous

improvement in a fast-changing world.

In 1993, Bain and Company started a large research

project to interview and survey thousands of corpo-

rate executives about the 25 most popular manage-

ment tools and techniques. The list for 2007 and their

usage rates are below. How many tools do you know?

For more information on speci c tools, visit the Bain

website: http://www.bain.com/management_tools/

home.asp.

Fashion. Over the last decade, tools such as

activity-based management, one-to-one marketing, sce-

nario planning, and virtual teams have dropped out

of the top 25. Business process reengineering has been

mercurial, with 69% usage in 1995, dropping to 38%

in 2000, increasing again to 69% in 2007.

Global. North American executives are more

likely to look outward, using strategic alliances and

collaborative innovation more than companies in other

parts of the world. European executives are big users

of customer segmentation. Latin American executives

use the fewest number of tools. Asia-Paci c execu-

tives report higher use of newer tools like consumer

ethnography and corporate blogs.

Limited. Reproduced with permission of Emerald Group

Publishing Limited in the format Textbook via Copyright

Clearance Center.

Contemporary Management Tools

Manager’sShoptalk

Significantly

below overall

mean

Usage

Significantly

above overall

mean

Mean 62%

RFID

Corporate Blogs

Consumer Ethnography

Offshoring

Six Sigma

Mergers and Acquisitions

Loyalty Management Tools

Collaborative Innovation

Lean Operations

Shared Service Centers

Total Quality Management

Growth Strategy Tools

Supply Chain Management

Balanced Scorecard

Strategic Alliances

Knowledge Management

Scenario and Contingency Planning

Business Process Reengineering

Outsourcing

Core Competencies

Mission and Vision Statements

Benchmarking

Customer Segmentation

Customer Relationship Management

Strategic Planning

23%

30%

35%

37%

40%

50%

51%

53%

54%

55%

64%

65%

66%

68%

69%

77%

79%

81%

82%

84%

88%

0 20406080100

PART 1 INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT36

EXHIBIT 2.1 Management Perspectives over Time

Recent challenges such as a tough economy and rocky stock market, environ-

mental and organizational crises, lingering anxieties over war and terrorism, and the

public suspicion and skepticism resulting from corporate scandals have left today’s

executives searching for any management tool—new or old—that can help them get

the most out of limited resources. This search for guidance is re ected in a prolifera-

tion of books, scholarly articles, and conferences dedicated to examining management

fashions and trends.

Exhibit 2.1 illustrates the evolution of signi cant management

perspectives over time, each of which will be examined in the remainder of this chap-

ter. The timeline re ects the dominant time period for each approach, but elements of

each are still used in today’s organizations.

CLASSICAL PERSPECTIVE

The practice of management can be traced to 3000 b.c., to the  rst government

organizations developed by the Sumerians and Egyptians, but the formal study

of management is relatively recent.

The

early study of management as we know it

today began with what is now called the

classical perspective.

The classical perspective on manage-

ment emerged during the nineteenth and

early twentieth centuries. The factory

system that began to appear in the 1800s

posed challenges that earlier organizations

had not encountered. Problems arose in

tooling the plants, organizing managerial

structure, training employees (many of

them non-English-speaking immigrants),

scheduling complex manufacturing oper-

ations, and dealing with increased labor

dissatisfaction and resulting strikes.

These myriad new problems and the

development of large, complex organiza-

tions demanded a new approach to coordi-

nation and control, and a “new sub-species

Frederick Winslow Taylor

(1856–1915). Taylor’s theory

that labor productivity could

be improved by scientiﬁ cally

determined management

practices earned him the

status of “father of scientiﬁ c

management.”

cla

ssical

ers

ective

ana

ement perspective that

ed durin

the nineteent

ear

twentiet

centuries

at emp

asize

a rationa

ent

ﬁ

c approac

to t

e stu

management an

soug

t to

e orga

ons

ﬁ

ope

rat

ing

chi

nes

CHAPTER 2 THE EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THINKING 37

Introduction

of economic man—the salaried manager”

—was born. Between 1880 and 1920, the

number of professional managers in the United States grew from 161,000 to more than

1 million.

These professional managers began developing and testing solutions to

the mounting challenges of organizing, coordinating, and controlling large numbers

of people and increasing worker productivity. Thus began the evolution of modern

management with the classical perspective.

This perspective contains three sub elds, each with a slightly different emphasis:

scienti c management, bureaucratic organizations, and administrative principles.

Scientiﬁ c Management

Scienti c management emphasizes scienti cally determined jobs and management

practices as the way improve ef ciency and labor productivity. In the late 1800s, a

young engineer, Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856–1915), proposed that workers “could

be retooled like machines, their physical and mental gears recalibrated for better

productivity.”

Taylor insisted that improving productivity meant that management

itself would have to change and, further, that the manner of change could be deter-

mined only by scienti c study; hence, the label scienti c management emerged. Taylor

suggested that decisions based on rules of

thumb and tradition be replaced with pre-

cise procedures developed after careful

study of individual situations.

Taylor’s philosophy is encapsulated

in his statement, “In the past the man has

been  rst. In the future, the system must

be  rst.”

The scienti c management ap-

proach is illustrated by the unloading of

iron from rail cars and reloading  nished

steel for the Bethlehem Steel plant in 1898.

Taylor calculated that with correct move-

ments, tools, and sequencing, each man was capable

of loading 47.5 tons per day instead of the typical 12.5

tons. He also worked out an incentive system that paid

each man $1.85 a day for meeting the new standard, an

increase from the previous rate of $1.15. Productivity at

Bethlehem Steel shot up overnight.

Although known as the father of scienti c management,

Taylor was not alone in this area. Henry Gantt, an associ-

ate of Taylor’s, developed the Gantt chart—a bar graph

that measures planned and completed work along each

stage of production by time elapsed. Two other important

pioneers in this area were the husband-and-wife team

of Frank B. and Lillian M. Gilbreth. Frank B. Gilbreth

(1868–1924) pioneered time and motion study and arrived

at many of his management techniques independen-

tly of Taylor. He stressed ef ciency and was known for

his quest for the one best way to do work. Although

Gilbreth is known for his early work with brick-

layers, his work had great impact on medical sur-

gery by drastically reducing the time patients spent

on the operating table. Surgeons were able to save

countless lives through the application of time

and motion study. Lillian M. Gilbreth (1878–1972)

was more interested in the human aspect of work.

When her husband died at the age of 56, she had 12 children ages 2 to 19. The

undaunted “ rst lady of management” went right on with her work. She presented

Automaker Henry Ford made extensive

use of Frederick Taylor’s scientiﬁ c management techniques, as illustrated

by this assembly of an automobile at a Ford plant circa 1930. Ford

replaced workers with machines for heavy lifting and moving autos

from one worker to the next. This reduced worker hours and improved

efﬁ ciency and productivity. Under this system, a Ford rolled off the

assembly line every 10 seconds.

sci

entiﬁ c managemen

ﬁe

ﬁ

the

ass

ica

ana

ge-

men

ers

pec

tiv

hat

pha

iﬁ

eterm

anges in management prac-

ces as t

e so

ution to improvin

uctivit

Lillian M. Gilbreth (1878–1972),

Frank B. Gilbreth (1868–1924).

This husband-and-wife team

contributed to the principles

of scientiﬁ c management. His

development of time and

motion studies and her work in

industrial psychology pioneered

many of today’s management

and human resource techniques.

PART 1 INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT38

a paper in place of her late husband, continued their seminars and consulting, lec-

tured, and eventually became a professor at Purdue University.

She pioneered in the

 eld of industrial psychology and made substantial contributions to human resource

management.

Exhibit 2.2 shows the basic ideas of scienti c management. To use this approach,

managers should develop standard methods for doing each job, select workers with

the appropriate abilities, train workers in the standard methods, support workers

and eliminate interruptions, and provide wage incentives.

The ideas of scienti c management that began with Taylor dramatically increased

productivity across all industries, and they are still important today. A recent Harvard

Business Review article discussing innovations that shaped modern management puts

scienti c management at the top of its list of 12 in uential innovations. Indeed, the

ideas of creating a system for maximum ef ciency and organizing work for maxi-

mum productivity are deeply embedded in our organizations.

However, because scienti c management ignored the social context and workers’

needs, it led to increased con ict and sometimes violent clashes between managers

and employees. Under this system, workers often felt exploited—a sharp contrast

from the harmony and cooperation that Taylor and his followers had envisioned.

Bureaucratic Organizations

A systematic approach developed in Europe that looked at the organization as a

whole is the bureaucratic organizations approach, a sub eld within the classical per-

spective. Max Weber (1864–1920), a German theorist, introduced most of the concepts

on bureaucratic organizations.

During the late 1800s, many European organizations were managed on a per-

sonal, family-like basis. Employees were loyal to a single individual rather than

to the organization or its mission. The dysfunctional consequence of this manage-

ment practice was that resources were used to realize individual desires rather

than organizational goals. Employees in effect owned the organization and used

resources for their own gain rather than to serve customers. Weber envisioned

organizations that would be managed on an impersonal, rational basis. This form

of organization was called a bureaucracy. Exhibit 2.3 summarizes the six character-

istics of bureaucracy as speci ed by Weber.

Weber believed that an organization based on rational authority would be more

ef cient and adaptable to change because continuity is related to formal structure

and positions rather than to a particular person, who may leave or die. To Weber,

rationality in organizations meant employee selection and advancement based

EXHIBIT 2.2

Characteristics of Scientiﬁ c

Management

General Approach

• Developed standard method for performing each job.

• Selected workers with appropriate abilities for each job.

• Trained workers in standard methods.

• Supported workers by planning their work and eliminating interruptions.

• Provided wage incentives to workers for increased output.

Contributions

• Demonstrated the importance of compensation for performance.

• Initiated the careful study of tasks and jobs.

• Demonstrated the importance of personnel selection and training.

Criticisms

• Did not appreciate the social context of work and higher needs of workers.

• Did not acknowledge variance among individuals.

• Tended to regard workers as uninformed and ignored their ideas and suggestions.

bur

eaucratic organizations

ubﬁ eld of the classical mana

ent perspective t

at emp

asize

man

age

men

mpe

rso

nal

asis t

roug

suc

emen

ﬁ

ty a

pon

ili

orma

reco

ng,

separ

ana

ement and ownership

CHAPTER 2 THE EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THINKING 39

Introduction

not on whom you know, but rather on competence and technical quali cations,

which are assessed by examination or according to training and experience. The

organization relies on rules and written records for continuity. In addition, rules

and procedures are impersonal and applied uniformly to all employees. A clear

division of labor arises from distinct de nitions of authority and responsibility,

legitimized as of cial duties. Positions are organized in a hierarchy, with each

position under the authority of a higher one. The manager depends not on his or

her personality for successfully giving orders but on the legal power invested in

the managerial position.

Read the ethical dilemma on pages 53–54 that pertains to problems of bureaucracy.

What would it be like for you to be a manager in a bureaucratic organization? Would

you thrive in that environment?

The term bureaucracy has taken on a negative meaning in today’s organizations

and is associated with endless rules and red tape. We have all been frustrated by

waiting in long lines or following seemingly silly procedures. However, rules and

other bureaucratic procedures provide a standard way of dealing with employees.

Everyone gets equal treatment, and everyone knows what the rules are. This foun-

dation enables many organizations to become extremely ef cient. Consider United

Parcel Service (UPS), sometimes called Big Brown.

TakeaMoment

EXHIBIT 2.3 Characteristics of Weberian Bureaucracy

SOURCE: Adapted from Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organizations, ed. and trans. A.M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons (New York: Free Press, 1947),

pp. 328–337.