Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
role. The customer service managers had all come
through the ranks and started as service engineers. At
that level technical requirements are high but at
management level only a broad technical knowledge
is required; business skills are more important than
mechanical skills. Non-service managers also recog-
nised the need for business and management skills.
13 Personal goals at work. 47 per cent claimed that
their only goal at work was to achieve the targets set
by the company or to be the best region in terms of
customer satisfaction. No conflict between business
goals and personal goals was revealed. However, only
senior managers clearly stated the relationship
between the company goals and those of the individ-
ual. Some managers had targeted future managerial
positions in accordance with the company succession
planning programme but no details were disclosed.
14 The purpose of training employees. 87 per cent
believed in the principle of training employees so
that they become more efficient. 53 per cent recog-
nised the importance of development of the
individual as a person, but this was a secondary fea-
ture. One manager quoted the principle of
‘self-actualising them’.
15 Basis of promotion. In the majority of cases, man-
agers clearly stated ‘merit’ or ‘ability’ as the overt
belief. However, the ‘if your face fits’ syndrome was
also an apparent covert reason. One senior manager
argued that with the removal of a layer of manage-
ment promotion chances were reduced.
16
Management response to change. 73 per cent claimed
that they responded very well and some claimed to
actually thrive on change. 27 per cent claimed that
management has severe difficulty but the implication
appeared to be that this applied to other managers
rather than to themselves. One manager pointed to
the managing change training course offered by
Helgaton to help with any problem areas.
17 Planning the work of others. Of the eleven man-
agers with line responsibilities 73 per cent (eight)
indicated that they do not specifically plan the work
of their subordinates. Instead they tended to agree
deadlines to work to and left subordinates to
achieve tasks their own way in the given time. The
remaining three managers claimed that they
planned the work of others in great detail.
18 Importance of factors. Managers were asked to rate
five factors in order of importance to both Helgaton
Ltd and to themselves (they were permitted to tie
answers). Results were then tabulated, as set out in
the table opposite.
For each heading, the first column shows the order
of importance, the second column the importance
they saw Helgaton Ltd attaching to each factor, the
third column is their own ranking of the factor, and
the final column looks at responses which ranked the
same for both Helgaton and the manager.
For example, according to nine respondents
output is a factor that Helgaton would rate as
number one importance. Seven managers rated
output as their highest priority and of these seven,
CHAPTER 3 APPROACHES TO ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT
Output
Imp. Hel. You Same
1974
212–
3–4–
442–
51––
Total 15 15 4
Groups and leadership
Imp. Hel. You Same
1553
2311
3431
433–
5–3–
Total 15 15 5
Communications
Imp. Hel. You Same
1141
2321
3943
414–
511–
Total 15 15 5
Motivation
Imp. Hel. You Same
1–7–
2631
331–
4431
521–
Total 15 15 2
Job design
Imp. Hel. You Same
122–
2–2–
331–
421–
5896
Total 15 15 6
Table 3.1 Order of importance attributed to five factors
105
four also ranked output as of greatest importance to
Helgaton. Thus 57 per cent of those managers who
believed output was the most important factor to
Helgaton also claimed it was their highest priority.
19 Prediction of behaviour. All the managers believed
that the behaviour of an individual can be predicted
providing the individual is well known to them.
There were, however, no indications of whether any
particular behavioural assumptions, for example
relating to motivation, job satisfaction or work per-
formance, are made in Helgaton Ltd.
20 Division between management and subordinates. 93
per cent perceived there to be a division to some
extent although this may be from a subordinate
only view and/or that these divisions were being
removed. Two managers further suggested that the
division was due, at least in part, to the benefits
received by managers when compared with subordi-
nates – for example bonus schemes and choice of
company car. One manager stated clearly that there
was no division.
21 Other roles within Helgaton Ltd. Within the cus-
tomer division all nine managers interviewed had
always worked in service. The other six managers
had varied backgrounds but tended to remain in
the same function. All the service managers indi-
cated that possible future moves would still be
within service.
Although the company promotes the belief that
cross-functional moves are possible, this appeared to
be a rare occurrence on a permanent basis. 50 per
cent had moved on a temporary or secondment
basis but only one manager had moved between
functions on a permanent basis.
22 Satisfaction of employees. Managers felt that
Helgaton Ltd was keen to find out what satisfies
employees although some responses suggested this
might be only a ‘lip-service’ exercise. It was only the
most senior managers who directly linked their
responses to the employee survey carried out each
year. 33 per cent highlighted the interest in satisfy-
ing the employee in terms of the time and money
spent in undertaking the employee survey.
23
Commitment to a common purpose. There was a
claimed 100 per cent commitment felt to a common
purpose at work. However, the nature of this common
purpose varied. Some managers expressed that they
felt committed to their TGO, some to the stated goals
of Helgaton Ltd, some to their region, some to busi-
ness results, and some to survival of the business.
PART 1 MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
YOUR TASKS
(a) Comment critically on the nature and value of the
investigation. What difficulties does such an
investigation present and how might these difficul-
ties be best overcome?
(b)
State clearly the conclusions you draw from the
investigation and discuss the extent to which it
reveals practical applications of organisation theory.
(c) Explain and justify the specific recommendations
you would make to the top management of
Helgaton Ltd as a result of the investigation.
NOTES AND REFERENCES
1. This chapter is based in parts on a development of the
author’s articles: Mullins, L. J. ‘Approaches to
Management’, Management Accounting, vol. 57, no. 4,
April 1979, pp. 15–18, and Mullins, L. J. ‘Some Further
Approaches to Management Theory’, Management
Accounting, vol. 58, no. 3, March 1980, pp. 30–3.
2.
See, for example: George, C. S. The History of Management
Thought, Second edition, Prentice-Hall (1972).
3.
For a review of management thinking see, for example:
Sheldrake, J. Management Theory: From Taylorism to
Japanization, International Thomson Business Press(1996).
4. See also: Flores, G. N. and Utley D. R. ‘Management
concepts in use – a 12-year perspective’, Engineering
Management Journal, vol. 12, no. 3, September 2000,
pp. 11–17.
5. McGregor, D. The Human Side of Enterprise, Penguin
(1987), p. 6.
6. Ghoshal, S., Barlett, C. A. and Moran, P. ‘Value
Creation: The New Millennium Management
Manifesto’, in Chowdhury, S. Management 21C,
Financial Times Prentice Hall (2000), p. 122.
7. Miner, J. B. Theories of Organizational Behaviour,
Dryden Press (1980).
8. Skipton, M. D. ‘Management and the Organisation’,
Management Research News, vol. 5, no. 3, 1983, pp. 9–15.
9. Fayol, H. General and Industrial Management, Pitman
(1949). See also: Gray, I. Henri Fayol’s General and
Industrial Management, Pitman (1988).
10. Urwick, L. Notes on the Theory of Organization,
American Management Association (1952).
106
Case study 3.1 continued
CHAPTER 3 APPROACHES TO ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT
107
11. Mooney, J. D. and Reiley, A. C. The Principles of
Organization, Harper and Bros (1939); revised by
Mooney, J. D., Harper and Row (1947).
12. Brech, E. F. L. Organisation: The Framework of
Management, Second edition, Longman (1965).
13. Simon, H. A. Administrative Behaviour, Third edition,
Free Press (1976), p. xxii.
14.
Woodward, J. Industrial Organization: Theory and Practice,
Second edition, Oxford University Press (1980).
15. Taylor, F. W. Scientific Management, Harper and Row
(1947). Comprises Shop Management (1903),
Principles of Scientific Management (1911) and
Taylor’s testimony to the House of Representatives’
Special Committee (1912).
16. Braverman, H. Labor and Monopoly Capital, Monthly
Review Press (1974).
17. For a study of employers’ labour relations policies,
including comments on the work of Braverman, see:
Gospel, H. F. and Littler, C. R. (eds) Managerial
Strategies and Industrial Relations, Heinemann
Educational Books (1983).
18. Cloke, K. and Goldsmith, J. The End of Management
and the Rise of Organizational Democracy, Jossey-Bass
(2002), p. 27.
19. Rose, M. Industrial Behaviour, Penguin (1978), p. 31.
See also: Rose, M. Industrial Behaviour, Second edition,
Penguin (1988), Chapter 2.
20. Drucker, P. F. ‘The Coming Rediscovery of Scientific
Management’, The Conference Board Record, vol. XIII,
June 1976, pp. 23–7. Reprinted in Drucker, P. F.
Towards the Next Economics and Other Essays,
Heinemann (1981).
21. Locke, E. A. ‘The Ideas of Frederick W. Taylor: An
Evaluation’, Academy of Management Review, vol. 7,
no. 1, January 1982, pp. 14–24.
22. For a discussion on ‘Fordism’, see, for example:
Fincham, R. and Rhodes, P. S. The Individual, Work
and Organization, Second edition, Weidenfeld and
Nicolson (1992).
23. Crainer, S. and Dearlove, D. Financial Times Handbook
of Management, Second edition, Financial Times
Prentice Hall (2001).
24. Stern, S. ‘Guru Guide’, Management Today, October
2001, pp. 83–4.
25. Weber, M. The Theory of Social and Economic
Organization, Collier Macmillan (1964).
26. Blau, P. M. and Scott, W. R. Formal Organizations,
Routledge and Kegan Paul (1966).
27. Stewart, R. The Reality of Management, Third edition,
Butterworth-Heinemann (1999).
28. Argyris, C. Integrating the Individual and the
Organization, John Wiley & Sons (1964).
29. Caulkin, S. ‘Faceless Corridors of Power’, Management
Today, January 1988, p. 65.
30. Peters, T. J. and Waterman, R. H. In Search of
Excellence, Harper & Row (1982).
31. Tibballs, G. Business Blunders, Robinson Publishing
(1999).
32. Cloke, K. and Goldsmith. J. The End of Management
and the Rise of Organizational Democracy, Jossey-Bass
(2002), pp. 92–4.
33. Ridderstrale, J. ‘Business Moves Beyond Bureaucracy’,
in Pickford, J. (ed.) Financial Times Mastering
Management 2.0, Financial Times Prentice Hall (2001),
pp. 217–20.
34. Green, J. ‘Is Bureaucracy Dead? Don’t Be So Sure’,
Chartered Secretary, January 1997, pp. 18–19.
35. See for example: Waller, P. ‘Bureaucracy takes new
form’, Professional Manager, May 1998, p. 6.
36. See, for example: Mullins, L. J. Hospitality Management
and Organisational Behaviour, Fourth edition, Longman
(2001).
37. Stewart, R. The Reality of Management, Third edition,
Butterworth Heinemann (1999).
38. See, for example: Wilson, F. A. Organizational
Behaviour: A Critical Introduction, Oxford University
Press (1999).
39. For example, see: Etzioni, A. Modern Organizations,
Prentice-Hall (1964), p. 41.
40. See, for example: Aktouf, O. ‘Management and
Theories of Organizations in the 1990s: Towards a
Critical Radical Humanism?’, Academy of Management
Review, vol. 17, no. 3, 1992, pp. 407–31.
41. There are many versions of the Hawthorne experi-
ments. Among the most thorough accounts is
Roethlisberger, F. J. and Dickson, W. J. Management
and the Worker, Harvard University Press (1939). See
also: Landsberger, H. A. Hawthorne Revisited, Cornell
University Press, Ithaca (1958).
42. See, for example: Rose, M. Industrial Behaviour, Second
edition, Penguin (1988).
43. See, for example: Buggy, C. ‘Are you really listening?’,
Professional Manager, July 2000, pp. 20–2.
44. Silverman, D. The Theory of Organisations, Heinemann
(1970).
45. Stead, B. A. Women in Management, Prentice-Hall
(1978), p. 190.
46. Crainer, S. Key Management Ideas: Thinkers that
changed the management world, Third edition,
Financial Times Prentice Hall (1998), p. 111.
47.
Maslow. A. H. ‘A Theory of Human Motivation’,
Psychological Review, vol. 50, no. 4, July 1943, pp. 370–96.
48. Herzberg, F. W., Mausner, B. and Snyderman, B. B.
The Motivation to Work, Second edition, Chapman
and Hall (1959).
49. McGregor, D. The Human Side of Enterprise, Penguin
(1987).
50. Likert, R. New Patterns of Management, McGraw-Hill
(1961). See also: Likert, R. The Human Organization,
McGraw-Hill (1967), Likert, R. and Likert, J. G. New
Ways of Managing Conflict, McGraw-Hill (1976).
51. McClelland, D. C. Human Motivation, Cambridge
Unibersity Press (1988).
52. Argyris, C. Understanding Organizational Behavior,
Tavistock Publications (1960) and Integrating the
Individual and the Organization, Wiley (1964).
53. See, for example: Caulkin, S. ‘Chris Argyris’,
Management Today, October 1997, pp. 58–9.
54. Bertalanffy, L. von ‘Problems of General Systems
Theory: A New Approach to the Unity of Science’,
Human Biology, vol. 23, no. 4, December 1951,
pp. 302–12.
108
PART 1 MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
55. Miller, E. J. and Rice, A. K. Systems of Organization,
Tavistock Publications (1967).
56. Boulding, K. ‘General Systems Theory – The Skeleton
of Science’, Management Science, vol. 2, no. 3, April
1956, pp. 197–208.
57. Trist, E. L. et al. Organizational Choice, Tavistock
Publications (1963).
58. Lane, T., Snow, D. and Labrow, P. ‘Learning to succeed
with ICT’, The British Journal of Administrative
Management, May/June 2000, pp. 14–15.
59. Walker, C. R. and Guest, R. H. The Man on the Assembly
Line, Harvard University Press (1952). See also: Walker,
C. R., Guest, R. H. and Turner, A. N. The Foreman on the
Assembly Line, Harvard University Press (1956).
60. Sayles, L. R. Behaviour of Industrial Work Groups, Wiley
(1958).
61. Blauner, R. Alienation and Freedom, University of
Chicago Press (1964).
62. Barnard, C. The Functions of the Executive, Oxford
University Press (1938).
63. Simon, H. A. The New Science of Management Decision,
Revised edition, Prentice-Hall (1977).
64. Cyert, R. M. and March, J. G. A Behavioural Theory of
the Firm, Second edition, Blackwell (1992).
65. Silverman, D. The Theory of Organisations, Heinemann
(1970), p. 147.
66. Goldthorpe, J. H. et al. The Affluent Worker, Cambridge
University Press (1968).
67. Fox, A. Industrial Sociology and Industrial Relations,
HMSO (1966).
68. Bowey, A. M. The Sociology of Organisations, Hodder
and Stoughton (1976).
69. For further information see Crainer, S. Key Management
Ideas: Thinkers that changed the management world,
Third edition, Financial Times Prentice Hall (1998).
70. Clegg, S. R. Modern Organizations: Organization Studies
in the Postmodern World, Sage (1990).
71. Watson, T. J. Organising and Managing Work, Financial
Times Prentice Hall (2002), p. 51.
72. Ibid., p. 50.
73.
See, for example: Legge, K. Human Resource Management:
Rhetorics and Realities, Macmillan Business (1995).
74. Watson, T. J. Organising and Managing Work, Financial
Times Prentice Hall (2002), p. 254.
75. Schneider, S. C. and Barsoux, J. Managing Across
Cultures, Second edition, Financial Times Prentice
Hall (2003).
76. Cheng, T., Sculli, D. and Chan, F. ‘Relationship
Dominance – Rethinking Management Theories from
the Perspective of Methodological Relationalism’,
Journal of Managerial Psychology, vol. 16, no. 2, 2001,
pp. 97–105.
77. Heller, R. ‘The Change Managers’, Management Today:
25th Anniversary Issue, 1991, pp. 12–16.
78. See, for example: Klein, S. M. and Ritti, R. R.
Understanding Organizational Behavior, Second edition,
Kent Publishing (1984), Chapter 1.
79. Miner, J. B. Management Theory, Macmillan (1971), p.
145. See also: Miner, J. B. Theories of Organizational
Behaviour, Holt, Rinehart and Winston (1980),
Chapter 1.
80. Crainer, S. Key Management Ideas: Thinkers that changed
the management world, Third edition, Financial Times
Prentice Hall (1998), p. xi.
81. For a critical account on competing views about organ-
isation theory and its applications, see: Perrow, C.
Complex Organizations, Second edition, Scott, Foresman
(1979). For a discussion of British and American ideas
on conceiving and selling management theory, see:
Foster, G. ‘Management’s Missing Ideas’, Management
Today, March 1980, pp. 72–5, 152–6.
82. Crainer, S. ‘That Was The Idea That Was’, Management
Today, May 1997, pp. 18–19.
83. Crainer, S. ‘The Rise of Guru Scepticism’, Management
Today, March 1997, pp. 48–52.
84. Flores, G. N. and Utley, D. R. ‘Management Concepts
in Use – a 12-year Perspective’, Engineering Management
Journal, vol. 12, no. 3, September 2000, pp. 11–17.
85. Stern, S. ‘Guru Guide’, Management Today, October
2001, p. 87.
86. Tudor, T. and Trumble, R. ‘Significant Historic Origins
that Influenced the Team Concept in Major Japanese
Companies’, Journal of Applied Business Research, vol.
12, no. 4, Fall 1996, p. 116.
87. Bhappu, A. ‘The Japanese Family: An Institutional
Logic for Japanese Corporate Networks and Japanese
Management’, Academy of Management Review, vol.
25, no. 2, April 2000, p. 412.
88. Khan, R. ‘Japanese Management: A Critical Appraisal’,
Management Decision, vol. 29, 1991, p. 17.
89. Channon, D. ‘Can Eastern H. R. Promise the West a
New Dawn?’ Personnel Management – East Asia, vol. 2,
no. 17, 1996, p. 2.
90. Lorriman, J. ‘Life Long Learning in Japan’, Journal of
European Industrial Training, vol. 19, no. 2, 1995, p. 2.
91. Doeringer, P. and Evans-Klock, C. ‘Hybrids or
Hodgepodges Workplace Practices of Japanese’,
Industrial and Labour Relations Review, vol. 51, no. 2,
January 1998, p. 171.
92. Harari, O. ‘Flood your Organization with Knowledge’,
Management Review, vol. 86, no. 10, November 1997,
p. 35.
93. Harari, O. ‘Turn your Organization into a Hotbed of
Ideas’, Management Review, vol. 84, no. 12, December
1995, p. 39.
94. Pickard, J. ‘Personnel Management Research’, DTI,
People Management, vol. 3, no. 15, 1997 p. 15.
95. Thanopoulos, J. and Leonard, J. ‘Nourishing
American Business with Japanese Recipes’, Review of
Business, vol. 18, no. 1, Fall 1996, p. 7.
96. Inone, Y. ‘Foreign Staff Learn the Matsushita Way’,
The Nikkei Weekly, 15 March 1993, p. 11.
97. Anon. ‘At NEC, Meetings Are a Way of Work’, Japan
Economic Journal, 3 February 1990.
98. Sargent, J. and Mathews, L. ‘Expatriate Reduction and
Mariachi Circles’, Personnel Management, vol. 28, no.
2, 1998, p. 77.
99. Kenney, M. and Goe, W. ‘Learning Factories or
Reproduction Factories’, Work and Occupations, vol. 25,
no. 3, 1998, p. 275.
100. Harney, A. ‘Young Japanese Losing Interest in
Lifelong Relationship with One Employer’, Financial
Times, 9 April 2000, p. 9.
CHAPTER 3 APPROACHES TO ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT
109
101. Kiso, T. ‘Just What You Always Wanted: Another
Lecture About Japanese Management’, Insight Japan,
vol. 8, no. 2, October 1999, p. 34.
102. Harney, A. and Abrahams, P. ‘Death of a Salaryman’,
Financial Times, 12 November 1998, p. 31.
103. Schmidt, R. ‘Japanese Management, Recession Style’,
Business Horizons, vol. 39, no. 2, March 1996, p. 70.
104. Op. cit., p. 73.
105. Lincoln, J. ‘The Transformation of the Japanese
Employment System’, Work and Occupations, vol. 24,
no. 1, February 1997, p. 39.
106. Op. cit., p. 43.
107. Walsh, J. ‘Japanese Forced into HR Strategy Rethink’,
People Management, vol. 3, no. 21, 23 October 1997,
p. 16.
108. Ornatowski, G. ‘The End of Japanese-style Human
Resource Management’, Sloan Management Review,
vol. 39, no. 33, Spring 1998, p. 73.
109. Dongsui, S. and Zhang, Y. ‘A Management Culture
Revolution for the New Century’, Journal of Applied
Management Studies, vol. 7, no. 1, June 1998, p. 135.
FT
Use the Financial Times to enhance your understanding of the context and practice of management and
organisational behaviour. Refer to article 2 in the BUSINESS PRESS section at the end of the book for
relevant reports on the issues explored in this chapter.
THE
0RGANISATIONAL
SETTING
Part 2
Part 3
THE ROLE OF
THE MANAGER
Part 6
ORGANISATIONAL
STRUCTURES
Part 7
MANAGEMENT
OF HUMAN
RESOURCES
Part 8
IMPROVING
ORGANISATIONAL
PERFORMANCE
Part 5
GROUPS AND
TEAMWORK
Part 1
MANAGEMENT AND
ORGANISATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
Part 4
THE
INDIVIDUAL
Part 2
THE
ORGANISATIONAL
SETTING
Dogbert’s Rule of Strategies
Allorganizations exist in multiple environments.
They exist within the culture and social structure
of the larger society, and they coexist in various
relations to other organizations with similar
purposes, as well as disparate organizations and
groups of people who may be owners, managers,
employees, customers, clients, or simply ‘the
public at large’.
Edgar Schein
Organizational Psychology, Prentice Hall (1988)
The process of management and applications
of organisational behaviour take place not in a
vacuum but within the context of a particular
organisational setting and environment. The
organisation is a complex social system and is
the sum of many interrelated variables. The
operations of the organisation are influenced
by the external environment of which it is part.
The manager needs to understand the nature of
organisations and the social context; and the
main features which affect the structure,
management and functioning of the work
organisation.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
explain the context of the organisation, common
factors and basic components of an organisation;
distinguish alternative types and classifications of
organisations, and relate different organisations to these
classifications;
examine the organisation in terms of an open systems
model;
analyse organisations on the basis of interrelated
sub-systems;
appreciate the influence of technology in work
organisations and the impact of information technology;
explain the nature and importance of the informal
organisation;
recognise the importance of the organisational setting.
THE NATURE OF
ORGANISATIONS
4
Photo: John Heseltine/Science Photo Library
Organisations in one form or another have always been an integral feature of human
civilisation. Although the origins of modern organisations can be traced back thou-
sands of years they continually evolve and the organisations of today are clearly very
different. The beginning of the 20th century with the emergence of large corporate
entities, and the work of writers such as Frederick Taylor on scientific management and
Max Weber on bureaucracy, drew attention to the importance of the work organisa-
tion. In Chapter 1 we drew attention to the changing nature of work organisations
today, and the impact on management and organisational behaviour.
1
All organisations have some function to perform. Organisations exist in order to
achieve objectives and to provide satisfaction for their members. Organisations enable
objectives to be achieved that could not be achieved by the efforts of individuals on
their own. It must be remembered that organisations are structures of people. Through
co-operative action, members of an organisation can provide a synergistic effect.
Organisations are an integral part of society involving both public and private sectors.
For example, in their discussion of the new public services, Farnham and Horton define
organisations as:
… social constructs created by groups in society to achieve specific purposes by means of
planned and co-ordinated activities. These activities involve using human resources to act in
association with other inanimate resources in order to achieve the aims of the organisation.
2
There are then many different types of organisations which are set up to serve a number
of different purposes and to meet a variety of needs. Organisations come in all forms,
shapes and sizes. Consider the diversification among such organisations as, for example:
Firm of accountants Hotel
School Leisure centre
Retail shop Quarry works
Local authority Government department
Airport Pharmaceutical company
Motor car manufacturer Bank
Hospital Nationalised industry
The structure, management and functioning of these organisations will all vary
because of differences in the nature and type of the organisation, their respective goals
and objectives, and the behaviour of the people who work in them. Let us now con-
sider just two types of organisations towards the opposite ends of a possible continuum
– say a maximum security prison and a university largely concerned with research – as
a framework on which to focus attention. We can appreciate readily that although
both types of organisation will be concerned with the basic activities of organisation
and management, their goals and objectives, actual procedures and methods of opera-
tion, structure, systems and style of management, and orientation and behaviour of
members will differ considerably (see Figure 4.1).
Common factors in organisations
Not only are there many different types of organisations, there is some suggestion that
cultural differences in countries can reflect different conceptions of what actually is an
organisation.
3
However, despite the differences, there are at least three common factors
in any organisation:
■ people,
■ objectives, and
■ structure.
114
PART 2 THE ORGANISATIONAL SETTING
THE CONTEXT OF THE ORGANISATION