Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition

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Forming (ch. 13, p. 532)

The initial formation of a group and the first stage

in group development.

Frustration (ch. 12, p. 476)

A negative response to the blockage of a desired

goal resulting in a defensive form of behaviour.

Functional (or group) approach to leadership

(ch. 8, p. 287)

This focuses attention on the functions of leader-

ship, rather than the personality of the leader, and

how the leader’s behaviour affects and is affected

by the group of followers. This approach to leader-

ship believes that the skills of leadership can be

learned and developed.

Functional relationships (ch. 15, p. 614)

The formal relationships within an organisation

between people in a specialist or advisory position,

and line managers and their subordinates. This

occurs when a person offers a common service

throughout all departments of the organisation.

Gap analysis (ch.23, p. 977)

An investigation of the gap between the vision,

objectives and goals of the organisation and actual

levels of performance, and establishing the neces-

sary actions to bring activities in line with that

which is planned.

Gender shaping (ch. 9, p. 370)

The ‘hidden’ patterns of behaviour during the

education process which reinforce the differences

between the male and female identity and which

help children to learn and conform to their

gender role. The notion of male dominance is

generally supported.

Glass ceiling (ch. 9, p. 367)

An invisible ‘ceiling’ reported to exist in many

organisations, which prevents women from rising

to the top.

Goal model approach (ch. 5, p. 145)

An approach towards organisational structure

that concentrates on the study of organisational

goals and the measurement of success against the

realisation of those goals.

Goal theory (ch. 12, p. 498)

A theory of motivation that is based on the prem-

ise that people’s goals or intentions play an

important part in determining behaviour. Goals

guide people’s responses and actions and direct

work behaviour and performance, leading to cer-

tain consequences or feedback.

Graphology (ch. 20, p. 809)

May be used as a method of selecting suitable can-

didates for a job and involves the analysis of

handwriting.

Group (ch. 13, p. 518)

Any number of people who interact with one

another, are psychologically aware of one another

and who perceive themselves as being in a group.

Group cohesiveness (ch. 13, p. 528)

The extent to which members of a group interact,

co-operate, are united and work together effec-

tively. Generally, the greater the cohesiveness

within a group, the more rewarding the experience

is for the members and the higher the chances are

of success.

Group dynamics (ch. 14, p. 573)

The study of interactions and forces within small

face-to-face groups. It is concerned with what hap-

pens when groups of people meet.

Group norm (ch. 13, p. 521)

Codes and practices developed by a group which

group members consider to constitute proper

group behaviour.

Groupthink (ch. 14, p. 570)

The tendency within a group to ‘drift along’

towards decisions which may be inappropriate or

unquestioned due to various in-group pressures.

Halo effect (ch. 11, p. 458)

When the perception of a person is formulated on

the basis of a single favourable or unfavourable

trait or characteristic and tends to shut out other

relevant characteristics of that person.

Harassment (ch. 9, p. 354)

Conduct which is unreasonable, unwelcome and

offensive and which creates an intimidating or

humiliating working environment. Harassment is

a direct type of discrimination if the victim can

show that the behaviour caused injury to feelings.

Hierarchy of needs (ch. 12, p. 480)

A theory of motivation developed by Maslow

which states that people’s behaviour is determined

by their desire to satisfy a progression of physio-

logical, social and psychological needs.

Human capital management (ch.1, p. 4)

The measurement and value of employees (human

capital) to the organisation and as a key indicator

of a company’s success.

GLOSSARY

1055

Human relations approach (ch. 3, p. 78)

A management approach based on the considera-

tion of and attention to the social factors at work

and the behaviour of employees within an organi-

sation. Particular importance is paid to the

informal organisation and the satisfaction of indi-

vidual’s needs through groups at work.

Human resource management (HRM) (ch. 19,

p. 747)

The design, implementation and maintenance of

strategies to manage people for optimum business

performance including the development of poli-

cies and processes to support these strategies.

Human resource planning (ch. 20, p. 797)

A strategy for the acquisition, utilisation, improve-

ment and retention of an organisation’s human

resources.

Hygiene (maintenance) factors (ch. 12, p. 485)

Factors within a job that serve to prevent dissatis-

faction. They are related to the job environment,

are extrinsic to the job itself and include job se-

curity, working conditions and salary.

Idiographic approaches (ch. 9, p. 342)

Approaches to the study of personality that focus

on understanding the uniqueness of individuals.

These approaches regard personality as a process

which is open to change.

Informal goals (ch. 5, p. 147)

The goals which the organisation actually pursues as

a result of the members of the organisation having

different and conflicting goals to the officially stated

(formal) goals of the organisation as a whole.

Informal groups (ch. 13, p. 526)

Informal groups serve to satisfy the psychological

and social needs of the group members and are not

necessarily related to tasks to be undertaken.

Informal groups are based on personal relation-

ships and membership can cut across the formal

structure of an organisation.

Informal organisation (ch. 4, p. 134)

An organisation arising from the interaction of

people, their psychological and social needs, and

the development of groups with their own rela-

tionships and norms of behaviour, irrespective of

those defined within the formal structure.

Informating technology (ch. 17, p. 665)

Generation of new information about organisa-

tional activities.

Information technology (ch. 4, p. 133)

Extends beyond computing to include telecommu-

nications, office equipment and more automated

procedures of work. The impact of information

technology will involve new patterns of work

organisation.

Inspirational leadership (ch. 8, p. 304)

Leadership associated with the concept of creating

a vision with which others can identify, getting

along with others and inspiring through personal

qualities or charisma.

Instrumental orientation (ch. 2, p. 33)

An individual’s orientation to work in which they

regard it as a means to an end and not as a central

life issue.

Interaction analysis (ch. 14, p. 563)

The description of group process and indications

of factors influencing the process through the

categorisation of every act of behaviour within

the group.

Internal environment (ch. 6, p. 206)

Relates to the culture and climate of an organisa-

tion and to the prevailing atmosphere surrounding

the organisation.

Intrinsic motivation (ch. 12, p. 472)

Related to psychological rewards such as achieving

appreciation, positive recognition and being given

the opportunity to use one’s ability. These psycho-

logical rewards can usually be determined by the

actions and behaviour of individual managers.

Introduction stage (ch. 17, p. 677)

The second main phase in the adoption and intro-

duction of new technology into an organisation.

This involves working on the technology and the

associated organisational changes with a view to

making them effective.

Investors in People (ch. 19, p. 761)

A Standard launched by the Department of

Employment for the training and development of

people. The Standard is a cyclical process based on

four key principles broken down into 12 indicators

against which the organisation has to produce evi-

dence for assessment.

Job analysis (ch. 20, p. 802)

The process by which the job description is

derived, describing the total requirements of the

job, which then leads to the person specification

for that job.

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GLOSSARY

1057

Job description (ch. 20, p. 802)

Tells you about the total requirements of the

job: exactly what it is, its purpose, duties, activities

and responsibilities, and position within the

formal structure.

Job design (ch. 18, p. 713)

Concerned with the relationship between workers

and the nature and content of jobs, and their

task functions.

Job enlargement (ch. 18, p. 714)

Involves increasing the scope of the job and the

range of tasks that the person carries out. Job

enlargement is horizontal job design and makes a

job structurally bigger.

Job enrichment (ch. 18, p. 714)

This arises from Herzberg’s two-factor theory and

is an attempt at enriching a job by incorporating

motivating or growth factors such as increased

responsibility or autonomy. Job enrichment involves

vertical job enlargement and aims to give an individ-

ual a more meaningful and challenging job.

Job redesign (ch. 18, p. 714)

The changing and restructuring of individual’s jobs

primarily through job rotation, job enlargement

or job enrichment.

Job rotation (ch. 18, p. 714)

The moving of a person from one job or task to

another in an attempt to add variety and help

remove boredom. It may also give the individual a

holistic view of the organisation’s activities and be

used as a form of training.

Job satisfaction (ch. 18, p. 700)

An attitude or internal state which is associated

with the working environment and working ex-

periences. In recent years it has been closely

associated with improved job design and work

organisation and the quality of working life.

Kaizen (ch.23, p. 964)

A Japanese concept of a total quality approach

based on continual evolutionary change with con-

siderable responsibility to employees within

certain fixed boundaries.

Knowledge management (ch. 10, p. 395)

The promotion and formalisation of learning

within the workplace with the aim of aligning

training with the needs of the business.

Laissez-faire (genuine) style of leadership (ch. 8,

p. 297)

Where the manager consciously makes a decision

to pass the focus of power to members of the

group allowing them freedom of action. The man-

ager has observed that the members of the group

work well on their own and does not interfere.

Lateral relationships (ch. 15, p. 615)

Formal relationships within an organisation which

exist between individuals in different departments

or sections, especially between individuals on the

same level.

Leadership (ch. 8, p. 281)

A relationship through which one person influ-

ences the behaviour or actions of other people.

Leadership Grid (ch. 7, p. 241)

A grid which compares the varying styles of man-

agement based on the concern for production

against the concern for people.

Leadership and Management Model (ch.23,

p. 956)

A developmental framework for ensuring that

organisations create, manage and invest in effec-

tive leadership now and in the long term. The

model is based on four key principles of commit-

ment, planning, action and evaluation

Learning (ch. 10, p. 390)

A change of a relatively permanent kind which

may result in new behaviours and actions or new

understanding and knowledge gained through a

formal process or spontaneously and incidentally

through life experiences.

Learning organisation (ch. 10, p. 399, ch. 23, p. 962)

An organisation that encourages and facilitates the

learning and development of people at all levels of

the organisation, values the learning and simulta-

neously transforms itself.

Legitimate (organisational) power (ch. 8, p. 306,

ch. 21, p. 782)

Based on the subordinate’s perception that the

leader has a right to exercise influence because of

the leader’s role or position in the organisation.

This power is based on authority and related to a

person’s position within an organisation.

Line organisation (ch. 15, p. 615)

Relates to those functions within an organisation

concerned with specific responsibility for achiev-

ing the objectives of the organisation and to those

people in the direct chain of command.

Line relationships (ch. 15, p. 614)

A formal relationship within an organisation

between individual positions where authority

flows vertically down through the structure.

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GLOSSARY

Locus of control (ch. 11, p. 455)

The extent to which an individual perceives that

his/her behaviour has a direct impact on the out-

comes which result from that behaviour.

Maintenance function (ch. 14, p. 564)

Functions within a group that are concerned with

the emotional life of the group and directed

towards building and maintaining the group as an

effective working unit.

Management (ch. 2, p. 34, ch. 6, p. 200)

The process through which efforts of members of

the organisation are co-ordinated, directed and

guided towards the achievement of organisational

goals. The clarification of objectives, planning,

organising, directing and controlling other

people’s work.

Management by Objectives (MBO) (ch. 7, p. 249)

A system or style of management which attempts

to relate organisational goals to individual perform-

ance and development through the involvement of

all levels of management.

Management development (ch. 23, p. 942)

Concerned with improving the effectiveness of

individual managers but also with an improve-

ment in management performance as a whole. It

must be integrated with the development of the

organisation and the associated improvement in

organisational effectiveness.

Managerial effectiveness (ch. 7, p. 260)

Concerned with ‘doing the right things’ and

relates to the outputs of the job and what the

manager actually achieves, i.e. attainment of the

aims and objectives of the organisation.

Managerial efficiency (ch. 7, p. 260)

Concerned with ‘doing things right’ and relates to

the input requirements of the job, i.e. planning,

organising, directing and controlling.

Managerial Grid (ch. 7, p. 241)

See Leadership Grid.

Managerial level (ch. 15, p. 599)

The level within an organisation that is concerned

with the co-ordination and integration of work at

the technical level.

Managerial role (ch. 6, p. 201)

A role from which some work has to be delegated

to subordinate roles but for which the occupant

remains accountable to a higher authority for the

manner in which all of this work is carried out.

The role includes planning, controlling, organis-

ing, commanding and co-ordinating the activities

of subordinates.

Matrix structure (ch. 15, p. 618)

Where there is a two-way flow of authority

and responsibility within an organisation due to

the vertical flow of authority and responsibility

from the functional departments and the horizon-

tal flow of authority and responsibility from

project teams.

Mechanistic system (ch. 16, p. 642)

A rigid system of management practice and struc-

ture which is characterised by a clear hierarchical

structure, specialisation of task, defined duties and

responsibilities and knowledge centred at the top

of the hierarchy.

Mission statement (ch. 5, p. 151)

Sets an organisation’s purpose, guiding values and

principles and the way in which it intends to

achieve its objectives, whilst recognising the inter-

ests of other stakeholders.

Motivation (ch. 12, p. 471)

The driving force within individuals by which they

attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfil

some need or expectation.

Motivators or growth factors (ch. 12, p. 485)

Factors within a job that, if present, serve to moti-

vate the individual to superior effort and

performance. These factors are related to the job

content of the work itself and include recognition,

personal growth and sense of achievement.

Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (ch. 9, p. 350)

A personality test which identifies 16 types of per-

sonality based on individuals’ extroversion or

introversion and their cognitive functions of

thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition.

Neo-human relations (ch. 3, p. 81)

A management approach developed by such writers

as Maslow, Herzberg and McGregor which adopts a

more psychological orientation than that of the

human relations approach. Particular attention is

paid to the personal adjustment of individuals at

work and the effects of group relationships and

leadership styles.

Network-building (ch. 6, p. 209)

Involves individuals interacting with others and

establishing a network of co-operative relations.

These networks are outside of the formal structure

and provide a means of exchanging information

on a wide range of topics.

Neuro linguistic programming (NLP) (ch.11,

p. 448)

The name originates from three disciplines which

all have a part to play when people are communi-

cating with others: neurology, language and

programming. NLP emphasises the significance of

the perceptual process, and ways in which infor-

mation is subjectively filtered and interpreted.

Nomothetic approaches (ch. 9, p. 342)

Approaches to the study of personality that focus

on people in general through the analysis of group

data. These approaches claim that personality is

largely inherited and resistant to change.

Normative power (ch. 21, p. 844)

A form of power which relies on the allocation and

manipulation of symbolic rewards (e.g. esteem

and prestige).

Norming (ch. 13, p. 532)

The third stage of group development during

which members of the group establish guidelines

and standards and develop their own norms of

acceptable behaviour.

Objectives (organisational) (ch.5 p. 152)

Objectives set out the specific goals of the organi-

sation, the aims to be achieved and the desired

end results.

Open systems model (ch. 4, p. 124)

The organisation is viewed as an open system that

takes input from the environment and through a

series of activities transform or converts these into

outputs to achieve some objective.

Operant conditioning (ch. 10, p. 405)

A theory of learning developed by Skinner show-

ing the effects of reward and punishment and

demonstrating that responses in behaviour are

learned because of their outcomes.

Organic system (ch. 16, p. 642)

A fluid and flexible system of management prac-

tice and structure which is characterised by the

adjustment and continual redefinition of tasks, a

network structure of control, authority and com-

munication and where superior knowledge does

not necessarily coincide with positional authority.

Organisation audit (ch. 23, p. 976)

Involves a review of the operations of the organisa-

tion as a whole and an examination of the full

range of management activities, including the

effective use of human resources.

Organisation development (ch. 22, p. 888)

A generic term which embraces a wide range of

intervention strategies which are aimed at the

development of individuals, groups and the organ-

isation as a total system.

Organisational behaviour (ch. 2, p. 26)

The study and understanding of individual and

group behaviour and patterns of structure in order

to help improve organisational performance and

effectiveness.

Organisational climate (ch. 22, p. 899)

Relating to the prevailing atmosphere surrounding

the organisation, to the level of morale, and to the

strength of feelings or belonging, care and good-

will among members. Organisational climate is

based on the perceptions of members towards the

organisation.

Organisational culture (ch. 22, p. 891)

The collection of traditional values, policies, beliefs

and attitudes that constitute a pervasive context

for everything we do and think in an organisation.

Organisational goals (ch. 5, p. 145)

Something that the organisation is striving to

achieve, a future expectation, a desired future state

and something towards which the activities of the

organisation are directed in an effort to attain.

Organisational ideology (ch.5 p. 150)

Based on the beliefs, values and attitudes of the

individuals, determines the culture of the organisa-

tion and provides a set of principles which govern

the overall conduct of the organisation.

Organisational structure (ch. 15, p. 596)

Structure is the pattern of relationships among

positions in the organisation and among members

of the organisation. It defines tasks and responsi-

bilities, work roles and relationships and channels

of communication.

Organisational sub-systems (ch. 4, p. 131)

The interrelated sub-systems of an organisation:

tasks, technology, structure, people and manage-

ment. These sub-systems need to be co-ordinated

to ensure that the activities of an organisation are

directed towards the achievement of aims and

objectives.

Organisations (ch. 4, p. 114)

A consciously co-ordinated social unit created by

groups in society to achieve specific purposes,

common aims and objectives by means of planned

and co-ordinated activities.

GLOSSARY

1059

Output control (ch. 21, p. 837)

A form of control that is based on the measure-

ment of outputs and the results achieved. This

form of control serves the needs of the organisa-

tion as a whole and is used when there is a need

for quantifiable and simple measures of organisa-

tional performance.

Parkinson’s Law (ch. 2, p. 41)

The concept of the ‘Rising Pyramid’ and the idea

that: ‘work expands so as to fill the time available

for its completion’.

Participative leadership (ch. 8, p. 299)

Involves consulting with subordinates and the

evaluation of their opinions and suggestions

before the manager makes the decision.

Peer rating (ch. 20, p. 809)

May be used as a method of selecting suitable can-

didates for a job and involves all candidates

nominating other candidates, usually on the basis

of a ‘sociability’ or ‘buddy’ rating.

Perception (ch. 11, p. 435)

The dynamic and complex way in which individu-

als select information (stimuli) from the

environment, interpret and translate it so that a

meaning is assigned which will result in a pattern

of behaviour or thought.

Perceptual defence (ch. 11, p. 459)

When people select information which is support-

ive of their own point of view and choose not to

acknowledge contrary information. They avoid or

screen out certain stimuli that are perceptually dis-

turbing or threatening.

Performance appraisal (ch. 19, p. 762)

A method of reviewing the performance and

potential of employees that is usually undertaken

formally and systematically at regular intervals.

Performing (ch. 13, p. 532)

The fourth stage of group development during

which the group concentrates on the performance

of the common task.

Person culture (ch. 22, p. 892)

A form of culture where the individual is the cen-

tral focus and any structure exists to serve the

individuals within it. Individuals have almost

complete autonomy and any influence over them

is likely to be on the basis of personal power.

Person specification (ch. 20, p. 802)

Tells you not only about the job but provides a

blueprint of the ‘ideal’ person to do that job, and

details the personal attributes and qualities associ-

ated with successful performance.

Personal centralised control (ch. 21, p. 841)

An approach to control which is characterised by

the centralisation of decision-making and initia-

tive around a leadership figure.

Personal (informal) power (ch. 21, p. 847)

Power that derives from the individual and is in

the eye of the beholders who believe that person

has the ability to influence other people or events

to make things happen.

Personality (ch. 9, p. 341)

An individual’s unique set of characteristics and

tendencies which shape a sense of self, and what

that person does and the behaviour they exhibit.

PESTEL analysis (ch.4, p. 126)

A technique for analysing the general external

environment of an organisation in terms of the

political, economic, socio-cultural, technological,

environmental and legal aspects.

(The) Peter Principle (ch.2, p. 40)

Concerned with the study of occupational incom-

petence and hierarchies, and the idea that ‘in a

hierarchy every employee tends to rise to their

level of incompetence’.

Pluralistic perspective (ch. 3, p. 86, ch. 19, p. 773)

Where a work organisation is viewed as being made

up of powerful and competing sub-groups with their

own legitimate loyalties, objectives and leaders.

Policy (organisational) (ch. 5, p. 152)

Policy is developed within the frame of the objec-

tives and details the ‘how’, ‘where’ and ‘when’ in

terms of the course of action which must be fol-

lowed to achieve the objectives.

Postmodernism (ch.3, p. 87)

A more recent view of organisations and manage-

ment that rejects a rational, systems approach and

accepted explanations of society and behaviour.

Postmodernism places greater emphasis on the use

of language and attempts to portray a particular set

of assumptions or versions of the ‘truth’.

Power (ch. 21, p. 843)

The level of control or influence a person holds

over the behaviour of others with or without their

consent.

Power culture (ch. 22, p. 892)

A form of culture that depends on a central power

source that exerts influence throughout the organ-

isation.

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GLOSSARY

Private enterprise organisations (ch. 4, p. 118)

Organisations owned and financed by individuals,

partners or shareholders accountable to their

owners or members. The main aim is of a commer-

cial nature such as profit, return on capital

employed, market standing or sales level.

Privatisation (ch. 4, p. 118)

The transfer of business undertakings from state

(government) control to the private sector. The

extent of state ownership, and the balance

between commercial and social interests.

Process theories of motivation (ch. 12, p. 480)

Concerned with how behaviour is initiated,

directed and sustained, i.e. the actual process

of motivation.

Projection (ch.11, p. 459)

Attributing or projecting one’s own feelings,

motives or characteristics to other people.

Projection is a distortion which can occur in the

perception of other people.

Protective organisations (ch. 4, p. 122)

Organisations that are formed for the purpose of

offering protection for individuals or the public

as a whole.

Psychological contract (ch. 2, p. 37)

An unwritten contract between employers and

employees which covers a series of mutual expec-

tations and satisfaction of needs arising from the

people–organisation relationship.

Psychological (psychometric) tests (ch. 9, p. 360)

Tests which assess an individual’s typical responses

to given situations based on their choices and

strength of feeling or which assess an individual’s

ability to perform effectively under standard con-

ditions, including aptitude and ability.

Psychology (ch. 2, p. 29)

The study of the personality system, i.e. human

behaviour, traits of the individual and membership

of small social groups.

Public sector organisations (ch. 4, p. 118)

Organisations created by the government which

do not generally have profit as their goal but have

political purposes. They include municipal under-

takings financed by rates, taxes, government

grants and loans; and central government depart-

ments which are ‘state owned’ and financed by

funds granted by Parliament.

Qualities (or traits) approach to leadership

(ch. 8, p. 287)

This assumes that leaders are born and not made.

Leadership consists of certain inherited characteris-

tics, or personality traits, which distinguish leaders

from their followers. Attention is focused on the

person in the job and not the job itself

Quality circles (ch. 18, p. 727)

A group of people within an organisation who

meet together on a regular basis to identify,

analyse and solve problems relating to quality, pro-

ductivity or other aspects of day-to-day working

arrangements using problem-solving techniques.

Rational–economic concept of motivation

(ch. 12, p. 477)

Based on the belief of earlier writers such as F. W.

Taylor that employees want, more than anything

else from their employer, the highest possible

wages for their work and are motivated by their

economic needs.

Referent power (ch. 8, p. 306)

Based on the subordinate’s identification with the

leader. The leader exercises influence because of

perceived attractiveness, personal characteristics,

reputation or charisma.

Regression (ch. 12, p. 476)

When an individual is frustrated and reverts to a

childish or primitive form of behaviour, e.g. sulk-

ing, crying or tantrums.

Remunerative power (ch. 21, p. 844)

A form of power that involves the manipulation

of material resources and rewards (e.g. salaries

and wages).

Responsibility (ch. 21, p. 850)

Involves an obligation by a subordinate to perform

certain duties or make certain decisions and

having to accept possible reprimand for unsatisfac-

tory performance.

Reward power (ch. 8, p. 306)

Based on the subordinate’s perception that the

leader has the ability and resources to obtain

rewards for those who comply with directives (e.g.

pay or promotion).

Risky shift (ch. 14, p. 569)

Where a group decides to take a riskier course

of action rather than the more conservative or

safer option.

GLOSSARY

1061

1062

GLOSSARY

Role (ch. 13, p. 536)

The expected pattern of behaviours associated with

members occupying a particular position within

the structure of the organisation.

Role ambiguity (ch. 13, p. 539)

This occurs when there is a lack of clarity as to the

precise requirements of the role and the individual

is unsure what to do.

Role conflict (ch. 13, p. 538)

Arises from inadequate or inappropriate role defi-

nition and results in a person behaving in a way

which may not be consistent with their expected

pattern of behaviour.

Role culture (ch. 22, p. 892)

A form of culture that is based on logic and ration-

ality and relies on the strength of the functions of

specialists in, for example, finance or production.

The interactions between the specialists is con-

trolled by procedures and rules.

Role expectations (ch. 13, p. 537)

Indicate what the person is expected to do and

their duties and obligations.

Role incompatibility (ch. 13, p. 539)

Arises when compliance with one set of expecta-

tions makes it difficult or impossible to comply

with the other expectations. The two role expecta-

tions are in conflict.

Role incongruence (ch. 13, p. 537)

This arises when a member of staff is perceived as

having a high and responsible position in one

respect but a low standing in another respect.

Role overload (ch. 13, p. 539)

When an individual faces too many separate roles

or too great a variety of expectations and is unable

to satisfactorily meet all expectations.

Role-set (ch. 13, p. 536)

Comprises the range of associations or contacts

with whom the individual has meaningful interac-

tions in connection with the performance of

their role.

Role underload (ch. 13, p. 540)

When the prescribed role expectations fall short

of the individual’s own perception of their role.

Scientific management (ch. 3, p. 69)

Developed by F. W. Taylor, this classical approach

to management advocates the breaking down of

work processes into discrete tasks to find the ‘one

best way’ of performing each task in terms of sci-

entific procedures. Increased productivity is

rewarded by financial rewards.

Shamrock organisation (ch. 16, p. 652)

A concept developed by Handy which states that

each leaf of the shamrock is symbolic of a different

group of people within the organisation: the pro-

fessional core; the contractual fringe; the flexible

labour force; and customers.

Situational approach to leadership (ch. 8, p. 294)

Where the person who is best suited to lead in a

particular situation takes on the role of leader. The

importance of the situation is the focus and the

person who is seen as the most suitable leader is

appointed by the group.

Social action (ch. 3, p. 85)

A study of organisations in which the organisation

is considered from the standpoint of the individ-

ual. Individual goals, interpretation of the work

situation in terms of the satisfaction sought and

the meaning that work has for them are used as a

basis for explaining behaviour.

Social learning (ch. 10, p. 408)

The process through which individuals learn

by watching others and repeating the actions, i.e.

imitating.

Social skills (ch. 6, p. 212)

Abilities related to interpersonal relationships in

working with and through other people, and the

exercise of judgement.

Sociology (ch. 2, p. 29)

The study of the social system, i.e. social behav-

iour, relationships among social groups and

societies and the maintenance of order.

Sociometry (ch. 14, p. 562)

A method of indicating the feelings of acceptance

or rejection among members of a group.

Socio-technical system (ch. 3, p. 84)

A sub-division of the systems approach which is

concerned with the interactions between the psy-

chological and social factors and the needs,

demands of the human part of organisation and its

structural and technological requirements.

Solidaristic orientation (ch. 2, p. 33)

An individual’s orientation to work in which group

activities are most important. There is an ego

involvement with work groups rather than with

the organisation itself.

GLOSSARY

1063

Span of control (ch. 15, p. 610)

The number of subordinates who report directly to

a given manager or supervisor.

Staff organisation (ch. 15, p. 615)

Relates to those functions within an organisation

which provide specialist and support functions for

the line organisation, creating an advisory

relationship.

Staff relationships (ch. 15, p. 615)

These formal relationships within an organisation

arise from the appointment of personal assistants

to senior members of staff. Someone in a staff posi-

tion usually has little or no direct authority in his

or her own right but acts as an extension of his or

her superior.

Stakeholder (organisational) (ch. 5, p. 163)

Any individual or group which has an interest in

and/or is affected by the goals, operations or activi-

ties of the organisation or the behaviour of its

members.

Stakeholder theory (ch. 5, p. 167)

A business is for its stakeholders and the actions of

management should be designed to balance stake-

holder interests.

Stereotyping (ch. 11, p. 457)

The tendency to ascribe positive or negative char-

acteristics to a person on the basis of a general

categorisation and perceived similarities. It occurs

when an individual is judged on the basis of the

group to which it is perceived that person belongs.

Storming (ch. 13, p. 532)

The second stage of group development which

involves members of the group getting to know

each other and putting forward their views.

Stress (ch. 18, p. 706)

A source of tension and frustration which tends to

arise when an individual feels that a certain situa-

tion should not exist.

Structuralism (ch. 3, p. 78)

A management approach which combines ele-

ments of both the classical and human relations

approaches. Greater attention is given to the rela-

tionship between the formal and informal aspects

of the organisation and, in particular, the study of

conflict within the organisation.

Supportive leadership (ch. 8, p. 299)

Involves a friendly and approachable manner from

the leader and displaying concern for the needs

and welfare of subordinates.

SWOT analysis (ch. 5, p. 159)

The study of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities

and Threats facing an organisation that may

provide a basis for decision-making and problem-

solving.

Systems approach (ch. 3, p. 82)

A management approach which attempts to recon-

cile the classical and human relations approaches.

Attention is focused on the total work of the

organisation and the interrelationships of structure

and behaviour and the range of variables within

the organisation. The organisation is viewed

within its total environment and emphasises the

importance of multiple channels in interaction.

Tacit knowledge (ch. 10, p. 396)

Knowledge and wisdom which is not easily

communicated or quantified but is gained through

experience and communicated on an informal

basis.

Tall hierarchical structure (ch. 15, p. 612)

An organisation that has narrow spans of control

and a relatively large number of levels of authority.

Task culture (ch. 22, p. 892)

A form of culture which is task or job oriented and

seeks to bring together the right resources and

people and utilises the unifying power of the group.

Task function (within groups) (ch. 14, p. 564)

Functions within a group that are directed towards

problem-solving, the accomplishment of the tasks

of the group and the achievement of its goals.

Task function (within organisations) (ch. 15,

p. 604)

The basic activities of the organisation that are

related to the actual completion of the productive

process and directed towards specific and definable

end-results.

Team-role (ch. 14, p. 556)

A pattern of behaviour, characteristic of the way in

which one team member interacts with another,

where performance facilitates the progress of the

team as a whole.

Technical competence (ch. 6, p. 211)

Relates to the application of specific knowledge,

methods and skills to discrete tasks.

Technical level (ch. 15, p. 599)

The level within an organisation which is con-

cerned with specific operations and discrete tasks,

with the actual job or tasks to be done and with

the performance of the technical function.

1064

GLOSSARY

Technology (ch. 4, p. 132)

The machinery, equipment, processes, work

layout, methods, systems and procedures in carry-

ing out the work of the organisation and

converting inputs to outputs.

Technology approach (ch. 3, p. 84)

A sub-division of the systems approach which

emphasises the effects of varying technologies on

organisation structure, work groups and individual

performance and job satisfaction.

T-groups (ch. 14, p. 574)

A leaderless and unstructured training group

which is formed to provide participants with an

opportunity to learn more about themselves and

their impact on others.

Theory X (ch. 7, p. 238)

A theory towards human nature and behaviour at

work that assumes that most people are lazy, have

an inherent dislike of work and must be coerced,

controlled and directed through a central system

of organisation and the exercise of authority.

Motivation occurs only at the lower level needs.

Theory Y (ch. 7, p. 238)

A theory towards human nature and behaviour at

work that assumes that most people enjoy work, are

creative, can exercise self-direction and control and

want to accept responsibility. Motivation occurs at

the higher level needs as well as lower levels.

Theory Z (ch. 7, p. 240)

A Japanese style organisational environment where

the characteristics include long-term employment,

development of company-specific skills, participa-

tive and collective decision-making and a broad

concern for the welfare of workers.

Total Quality Management (TQM) (ch. 23, p. 964)

An approach to quality within an organisation

which is committed to total customer satisfaction

through a continuous process of improvement,

and the contribution and involvement of people.

Traditional organisations (ch. 4, p. 121)

An organisation in which authority is legitimised

through tradition, custom and a longstanding

belief in the natural right to rule or is possessed

through the ‘traditional’ procedure.

Transactional analysis (ch. 11, p. 448)

Originally developed by Eric Berne, this is a popu-

lar way of explaining the dynamics of

interpersonal communication which assumes that

individuals store all events and feelings ever expe-

rienced and that the personality has three ego

states: Child, Adult and Parent.

Transactional leadership (ch. 8, p. 302)

Based on legitimate authority within the bureau-

cratic structure of the organisation. The emphasis

is on the clarification of goals and objectives, work

task and outcomes, and organisational rewards and

punishment.

Transformational leadership (ch. 8, p. 302)

Based on the objective of transforming the per-

formance or fortunes of a business. The emphasis

is on generating a vision for the organisation and

the leader’s ability to appeal to the values of fol-

lowers in attempting to create a feeling of justice,

loyalty and trust.

Unitary perspective (ch. 3, p. 86, ch. 19, p. 773)

Where a work organisation is viewed as an inte-

grated and harmonious whole with managers and

other staff sharing common interests and objectives.

Upward feedback (ch. 19, p. 765)

An upward review or appraisal system that

involves subordinates’ appraisal of managers.

Virtual teams (ch.13, p. 535)

Teams where the primary interaction among mem-

bers is by some electronic information and

communication process.

Withdrawal (ch. 12, p. 476)

When an individual is frustrated and ‘gives up’ or

resigns themself to the situation.