Moran M.J., Shapiro H.N. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics

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and Joule-Thomson coefficient, 661–663

relations involving, 658–661

Specific heat ratio, 117

Specific humidity, 728

Specific volume, 13–14, 657

pseudoreduced, 124

Spontaneous processes, 236–237

Stacks, fuel cell, 804

Stagnation enthalpy, 555

Stagnation pressure, 555

Stagnation state, 555

Stagnation temperature, 555

Standard chemical exergy, 821–826

of ammonia, 825

of hydrocarbons, 822–825

Standard molar chemical energy, of selected

substances, 935

Standard reference state, 788

State principle, 92

Statistical thermodynamics, 8, 305

Steady one-dimensional flow:

momentum equation for, 551–552

in nozzles and diffusers, 555–561

Steady state:

control volumes at, 175–177

defined, 167

one-inlet, one-exit control volumes at,

308–309

Steady-state entropy rate balance, 308

Steady-state systems, 9, 66–68

Steam:

for emergency power generation, 203–204

in supercritical vapor power plants, 448

withdrawing, from a tank at constant

pressure, 201–203

Steam nozzle, calculating exit area of,

179–180

Steam quality, measuring, 195–196

Steam-spray humidifiers, 750–752

Steam tables, 100

Steam turbines:

calculating heat transfer from, 182–183

entropy production in, 309–310

exergy accounting of, 386–387

Stefan-Boltzmann law, 56

Stiffness, 81

Stirling cycle, 536–537

Stirling engine, 537

Stoichiometric coefficients, 778

Strain, 81

Stresses:

normal, 15

shear, 15

Stroke (internal combustion engine), 494

Subcooled liquids, 97

Sublimation, 99

Subsonic flow, 554

Sulfur dioxide, from coal combustion, 436

Superconducting magnetic systems, 75

Superconducting power cable, 376

Supercritical vapor power cycle, 436, 447–448

Superheat, 447

Superheated vapors, 98, 539

Superheated vapor tables, 100–101

Supersonic flow, 554

Surface, control, 4

Surroundings, 4

Syngas (synthesis gas), 545

Synthetic refrigerants, 600

System(s), 4, 6–10

closed, 4, 6

defined, 4

describing, 8–10

disorder of, 306

exergy of, 362–368

isolated, 6

open, 4

selecting boundary of, 7–8

steady-state, 9, 66–68

System integration, 196–199

Systolic blood pressure, 18

Tables of thermodynamic properties,

constructing, 663–668

by differentiating a fundamental

thermodynamic function, 665–668

by integration, using p-v-T and specific

heat data, 664–665

Tanks:

air leaking from, 320–321

storing compressed air in, 205–207

well-stirred, temperature variation in,

208–209

withdrawing steam from, at constant

pressure, 201–203

T ds equations, 286–288

Temperature, 18–22

adiabatic flame, 800–804

adiabatic-saturation, 737–738

critical, 95

defined, 19

dew point, 731–732

dry-bulb, 738–739

equilibrium flame, 865–869

reduced, 123

saturation, 96

stagnation, 555

wet-bulb, 738–739

Temperature-entropy diagram (T-s diagram),

285–286, 991–992

Temperature table, 103

Test for exactness, 638–640

Theoretical air, 780

Thermal blankets, 189

Thermal conductivity, 56

Thermal efficiency, 72

limit on, for power cycles interacting with

two reservoirs, 249–251

of Rankine cycle, 435, 441

Thermal energy storage, 111–112

cold storage, 603–604

Thermal equilibrium, 19

Thermal glider, 247–248

Thermal (heat) interaction, 19

Thermal pollution, 433

Thermal radiation, 56

Thermal reservoir, 239–240

Thermistors, 20

Thermochemical properties, of selected

substances (table), 934, 984

Thermocouples, 19

Thermodynamic cycles, 70, 249–266. See

also Cycles

Thermodynamic equilibrium, 848

Thermodynamic probability, 306

Thermodynamics. See also Second law of

thermodynamics

classical, 8

first law of, 58–59

and future sustainability challenges, 4, 6

macroscopic vs. microscopic views of, 8–9

refrigeration and heat pump cycles,

251–253, 264

statistical, 8, 305

third law of, 809

using, 4, 5

zeroth law of, 19

Thermodynamics problems, solving, 24–26

Thermoeconomics, 395–402

Thermoelectric cooling, 602–603

Thermometers, 19–20, 255–256

Thermometric properties, 19

Thermometric substances, 19

Third law of thermodynamics, 809

Throat, 557

Throttling calorimeter, 195–196

Throttling devices, 194–196

Throttling processes, 195

Throttling valve, exergy destruction in,

381–382

Tides, power generation from, 427, 428

Time rate form of the energy

balance, 60

Ton of refrigeration, 592

Total exergy, 826–829

Transient analysis, 199–209

applications of, 201–209

energy balance in, 200–201

mass balance in, 199–200

Transient operation, 69–70

Translational kinetic energy, 54

Transonic flow, 554

Trap (closed feedwater heater), 458

Triple line, 95

Triple point, 21, 22

T- s diagram, see Temperature-entropy

diagram

Turbines, 180–183. See also Gas turbine

power plants

cost rate balance for, 399–400

defined, 180

exergetic efficiency of, 392–393

heat transfer from steam, 182–183

hydraulic, 180–181

isentropic efficiency of, 322–325

low-wind, 181

modeling considerations with, 182

in Rankine cycle, 434, 443

reheat cycle with turbine irreversibility,

451–453

steam, entropy production in, 309–310

steam, exergy accounting of, 386–387

vapor cycle exergy analysis of, 472–473

wind, 180, 181

Turbofan engine, 549–550

Turbojet engine, 546–549

Turboprop engine, 549–550

T- v diagrams, 96–97

Two-phase liquid-vapor mixtures, 98

Two-phase regions, 94, 95

Index 1003

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U, see Internal energy

Ultimate analysis, 779

Ultra-capacitors, 74–75

Ultrasound, 554–555

Ultra-supercritical vapor power plants, 448

Unit conversion factors, 12

Universal gas constant, 122

Vacuum pressure, 17, 18

Van der Waals equation of state, 633,

636–637, 933, 983

Van’t Hoff equation, 869–870

Vapors, superheated, 98

Vapor-compression heat pumps, 608–611

Vapor-compression refrigeration systems,

592–600

cascade, 604–605

and ideal vapor-compression cycle,

594–595

irreversible heat transfer and perfor-

mance of, 596–597

multistage, 605–606

performance of, 593–600

principal work and heat transfers for,

592–593

Vapor data (for entropy), 284

Vaporization, 98

Vapor power systems, 426–475

and binary vapor power cycle, 464

carbon capture and storage, 465–467

in closed feedwater heaters, 458–459

cogeneration systems, 465

exergy accounting for, 468–474

in open feedwater heaters, 453–458

Rankine cycle, 433–447

regeneration in, 453–463

reheat in, 447–453

and supercritical cycle, 447–448

superheat in, 447

vapor power plants, 430–433

and working fluid characteristics, 463–464

Vapor refrigeration systems, 590–592

Vapor states, 98–99

Vapor tables, 100–101

Velocity of sound, 552–555, 658

Virial equations of state, 126–127, 632

Volts, 51

Volume(s):

control, 4, 6–7

partial, 711

specific, 13–14, 657

Volume expansivity, 657

Volumetric analysis, 709, 711

Volumetric flow rate, 167

W (watt), 44

Waste-heat recovery systems, 197–199

exergy accounting of, 387–389

Water:

compressed liquid (table), 899, 949

equilibrium of moist air in contact with,

877–878

filling a barrel with, 169–171

heating, at constant volume, 105–106

internally reversible process of, 293–295

irreversible process of, 298–299

moist air in equilibrium with, 730–731

saturated, pressure table for, 893, 941

saturated, temperature tables for, 891,

900, 939, 950

stirring, at constant volume, 112–113

superheated (table), 895, 943

as working fluid, 464

Water–gas shift reaction, 805

Watt (W), 44

Waves, power generation from, 427, 428

Wearable coolers, 117

Well-to-fuel-tank efficiency, 395

Well-to-wheel efficiency, 395

Wet-bulb temperature, 738–739

Wind chill index, 739

Wind farms, 181, 331

Wind power plants, 427

Wind turbines, 180, 181

environmental concerns with, 427

low-wind, 181

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute,

247–248

Work, 39, 42–53

for a control volume, 173

examples of, 50–52

and exergy, 361

exergy transfer accompanying, 370

expansion/compression, 45–50, 299–300

flow, 173

in internally reversible, steady-state flow

processes, 330–331

in polytropic processes, 331–333

and power, 44–45

in quasiequilibrium processes, 46–52

second law of thermodynamics and

opportunities for developing, 238

sign convention for, 43

thermodynamic definition of, 42

Workable designs, 23

Working fluids, 430–433, 463–464

Z (compressibility factor), 122–126

Zeroth law of thermodynamics, 19

1004 Index

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a acceleration, activity

A area

AF air –fuel ratio

bwr back work ratio

c specific heat of an incompressible substance,

velocity of sound

c unit cost

cost rate

hydrocarbon fuel

specific heat at constant pressure,

T )

specific heat at constant volume,

T )

specific heat c

at zero pressure

e , E energy per unit of mass, energy

e , E exergy per unit of mass, exergy

, E

specific flow exergy, flow exergy rate

, E

exergy destruction, exergy destruction rate

exergy transfer accompanying heat transfer, rate

of exergy transfer accompanying heat transfer

exergy transfer accompanying work

E electric field strength

e electrical potential, electromotive force (emf)

f fugacity

fugacity of component i in a mixture

F degrees of freedom in the phase rule

F, F force vector, force magnitude

FA fuel –air ratio

g acceleration of gravity

g , G Gibbs function per unit of mass, Gibbs function

Gibbs function of formation per mole at

standard state

h , H enthalpy per unit of mass, enthalpy

h heat transfer coefficient

H magnetic field strength

enthalpy of formation per mole at

standard state

enthalpy of combustion per mole

HHV higher heating value

i electric current

k specific heat ratio: c

k Boltzmann constant

K equilibrium constant

ke, KE kinetic energy per unit of mass, kinetic energy

l , L length

LHV lower heating value

m mass

mass flow rate

M molecular weight, Mach number

M magnetic dipole moment per unit volume

Symbols

mep mean effective pressure

mf mass fraction

n number of moles, polytropic exponent

N number of components in the phase rule

p pressure

atm

atmospheric pressure

pressure associated with mixture component i ,

partial pressure of i

relative pressure as used in Tables A -22

reduced pressure: p/p

P number of phases in the phase rule

P electric dipole moment per unit volume

pe, PE potential energy per unit of mass, potential

energy

heat flux

Q heat transfer

heat transfer rate

conduction rate

, Q

convection rate, thermal radiation rate

r compression ratio

cutoff ratio

R gas constant:

resultant force, electric

resistance

R universal gas constant

s , S entropy per unit of mass, entropy

s8 entropy function as used in Tables A-22,

absolute entropy at the standard reference

pressure as used in Table A-23

t time

T temperature

reduced temperature: T/T

torque

u , U internal energy per unit of mass, internal energy

v , V specific volume, volume

V, V velocity vector, velocity magnitude

relative volume as used in Tables A -22

v 9

pseudoreduced specific volume: y

volume associated with mixture component i ,

partial volume of i

W work

rate of work, or power

x quality, position

X extensive property

y mole fraction, mass flow rate ratio

z elevation, position

Z compressibility factor, electric charge

cost rate of owning/operating

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Greek Letters

a isentropic compressibility

b coefficient of performance for a refrigerator,

volume expansivity

g coefficient of performance for a heat pump,

activity coefficient

D change 5 final minus initial

e exergetic (second law) efficiency, emissivity,

extent of reaction

h efficiency, effectiveness

u temperature

k thermal conductivity, isothermal compressibility

m chemical potential

Joule –Thomson coefficient

n stoichiometric coefficient

r density

s, s

entropy production, rate of entropy production

s normal stress, Stefan –Boltzmann constant

g summation

t surface tension

f relative humidity

c, C Helmholtz function per unit of mass,

Helmholtz function

v humidity ratio (specific humidity), angular velocity

Subscripts

a dry air

ad adiabatic

as adiabatic saturation

ave average

b boundary

c property at the critical point, compressor,

overall system

cv control volume

cw cooling water

C cold reservoir, low temperature

db dry bulb

e state of a substance exiting a control volume

e exergy reference environment

f property of saturated liquid, temperature of

surroundings, final value

F fuel

fg difference in property for saturated vapor and

saturated liquid

g property of saturated vapor

H hot reservoir, high temperature

i state of a substance entering a control volume,

mixture component

i initial value, property of saturated solid

I irreversible

ig, if difference in property for saturated vapor

(saturated liquid) and saturated solid

isol isolated

int rev internally reversible

j portion of the boundary, number of components

present in a mixture

n normal component

p pump

ref reference value or state

reg regenerator

res reservoir

P products

R reversible, reactants

s isentropic

sat saturated

surr surroundings

t turbine

tp triple point

0 property at the dead state, property of the

surroundings

o stagnation property

v vapor

w water

wb wet bulb

x upstream of a normal shock

y downstream of a normal shock

1,2,3 different states of a system, different locations

in space

Superscripts

ch chemical exergy

e component of the exergy reference environment

– bar over symbol denotes property on a molar

basis (over X , V , H , S , U , C, G , the bar denotes

partial molal property)

? dot over symbol denotes time rate

8 property at standard state or standard pressure

* ideal gas, quantity corresponding to sonic velocity

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How to Use This Book Effectively

This book is organized by chapters and sections within chapters. For a listing of contents, see pp. ix–xvi. Fundamental concepts

and associated equations within each section lay the foundation for applications of engineering thermodynamics provided in solved

examples, end-of-chapter problems and exercises, and accompanying discussions. Boxed material within sections of the book allows you

to explore selected topics in greater depth, as in the boxed discussion of properties and nonproperties on p. 10.

Contemporary issues related to thermodynamics are introduced throughout the text with three unique features: ENERGY &

ENVIRONMENT discussions explore issues related to energy resource use and the environment, as in the discussion of hybrid

vehicles on p. 39. BIOCONNECTIONS tie topics to applications in bioengineering and biomedicine, as in the discussion of

control volumes of living things and their organs on p. 7.

Horizons

link subject matter to emerging technologies and thought-provoking issues, as in the discussion of nanotechnology

on p. 15.

Other core features of this book that facilitates your study and contributes to your understanding include:

Examples

 Numerous annotated solved examples are provided that feature the solution methodology presented in Sec. 1.9 and illustrated in

Example 1.1. We encourage you to study these examples, including the accompanying comments.

 Each solved example concludes with a list of the Skills Developed in solving the example and a Quick Quiz that allows an

immediate check of understanding.

 Less formal examples are given throughout the text. They open with

 FOR EXAMPLE

and close with     . These examples

also should be studied.

Exercises

 Each chapter has a set of discussion questions under the heading

 EXERCISES: THINGS ENGINEERS THINK ABOUT

that may

be done on an individual or small -group basis. They allow you to gain a deeper understanding of the text material, think critically,

and test yourself.

 A large number of end -of -chapter problems also are provided under the heading

 PROBLEMS: DEVELOPING ENGINEERING SKILLS

The problems are sequenced to coordinate with the subject matter and are listed in increasing order of difficulty. The problems are also

classified under headings to expedite the process of selecting review problems to solve. Answers to selected problems are provided on

the student companion website that accompanies this book.

 Because one purpose of this book is to help you prepare to use thermodynamics in engineering practice, design

considerations related to thermodynamics are included. Every chapter has a set of problems under the heading

 DESIGN & OPEN ENDED PROBLEMS: EXPLORING ENGINEERING PRACTICE

that provide opportunities for practicing cre-

ativity, formulating and solving design and open-ended problems, using the Internet and library resources to find relevant

information, making engineering judgments, and developing communications skills. See, for example, problem 1.10 D on p. 35.

Further Study Aids

 Each chapter opens with an introduction giving the engineering context, stating the chapter objective , and listing the learning

outcomes.

 Each chapter concludes with a

 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND STUDY GUIDE

that provides a point of departure to study for

examinations.

 For easy reference, each chapter also concludes with lists of

 KEY ENGINEERING CONCEPTS

and

 KEY EQUATIONS

 Important terms are listed in the margins and coordinated with the text material at those locations.

 Important equations are set off by a color screen, as for Eq. 1.8.

 TAKE NOTE... in the margin provides just-in-time information that illuminates the current discussion, as on p. 8, or refines our

problem-solving methodology, as on p. 12 and p. 22.



in the margin identifies an animation that reinforces the text presentation at that point. Animations can be viewed by going

to the student companion website for this book. See TAKE NOTE... on p. 8 for further detail about accessing animations.

 in the margin denotes end -of -chapter problems where the use of appropriate computer software is recommended.

 For quick reference, conversion factors and important constants are provided on the next page.

 A list of symbols is provided on the inside back cover.

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Mass and Density

1 kg 5 2.2046 lb

1 g/cm

5 10

kg/m

1 g/cm

5 62.428 lb/ft

1 lb 5 0.4536 kg

1 lb/ft

5 0.016018 g/cm

1 lb/ft

5 16.018 kg/m

Length

1 cm 5 0.3937 in.

1 m

5 3.2808 ft

1 in.

5 2.54 cm

1 ft 5 0.3048 m

Velocity

1 km/h 5 0.62137 mile/h

1 mile/h 5 1.6093 km/h

Volume

1 cm

5 0.061024 in.

1 m

5 35.315 ft

1 L

5 10

1 L 5 0.0353 ft

1 in.

5 16.387 cm

1 ft

5 0.028317 m

1 gal

5 0.13368 ft

1 gal 5 3.7854 3 10

Force

1 N 5 1 kg ? m/s

1 N

5 0.22481 lbf

1 lbf 5 32.174 lb ? ft/s

1 lbf 5 4.4482 N

Conversion Factors

Pressure

1 Pa 5 1 N/m

5 1.4504 3 10

lbf/in.

1 bar

5 10

N/m

1 atm

5 1.01325 bar

1 lbf/in.

5 6894.8 Pa

1 lbf/in.

5 144 lbf/ft

1 atm 5 14.696 lbf/in.

Energy and Specific Energy

1 J 5 1 N ? m 5 0.73756 ft ? lbf

1 kJ

5 737.56 ft ? lbf

1 kJ

5 0.9478 Btu

1 kJ/kg 5 0.42992 Btu/lb

1 ft ? lbf 5 1.35582 J

1 Btu 5 778.17 ft ? lbf

1 Btu 5 1.0551 kJ

1 Btu/lb 5 2.326 kJ/kg

1 kcal 5 4.1868 kJ

Energy Transfer Rate

1 W 5 1 J/s 5 3.413 Btu/h

1 kW

5 1.341 hp

1 Btu/h 5 0.293 W

1 hp 5 2545 Btu/h

1 hp 5 550 ft ? lbf/s

1 hp 5 0.7457 kW

Specific Heat

1 kJ/kg ? K 5 0.238846 Btu/lb ? 8R

1 kcal/kg ? K 5 1 Btu/lb ? 8R

1 Btu/h ? 8R

5 4.1868 kJ/kg ? K

Others

1 ton of refrigeration 5 200 Btu/min 5 211 kJ/min

1 volt 5 1 watt per ampere

Universal Gas Constant

R 5 •

8.314 kJ

kmol ? K

1545 ft ? lbf

lbmol ? 8R

1.986 Btu

lbmol ? 8R

Standard Acceleration of Gravity

g 5 e

9.80665 m

32.174 ft

Constants

Standard Atmospheric Pressure

1 atm 5 •

1.01325 bar

14.696 lbf

in.

760 mm Hg 5 29.92 in. Hg

Temperature Relations

5 1.8 T

5 T

2 273.15

5 T

2 459.67

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