Magill J., Galy J. Radioactivity Radionuclides Radiation

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244 Appendices

Decay Modes: Colours and Symbols

Stable nuclides

Primordial radionuclides, i. e. those formed in the build-up of the terrestrial

matter and still present today.

C12

Positron decay

ε Electron capture

−

Negatron decay

α Alpha decay

sf Spontaneous ﬁssion

p Proton decay

C12 Cluster emission

The data given in the left part apply to the metastable state, those in the

right part to the ground state. Iγ denotes γ-quanta due to the decay to the

ground state of the same nuclide (isomeric decay).

←→

The assignment of decay properties to the metastable or ground state is un-

certain.

Appendix G: Karlsruhe Chart of the Nuclides – Karlsruher Nuklidkarte 245

One or more shortlived states, for which only decay via spontaneous ﬁssion has

been observed (spontaneously ﬁssioning isomers) are indicated by a vertical

green bar.

Emission of γ-quanta; theyare always listed together with the respective parent

nuclide.

−

Emission of conversion electrons; the symbol is quoted only, if more conver-

sion electrons than γ-quanta are emitted.

βxp; βxn;

βd; βt;

βxα; βsf

Emission of the speciﬁed particles or spontaneous ﬁssion from an excited level

of the daughter nuclide, populated via β-decay (“β-delayed particle emission

or ﬁssion”).

2β

−

Simultaneous emission of two β-particles (“double β-decay”, e.g.

130

Te →

130

Xe).

p; n

2p; 2α

Emission of the speciﬁed particles from a particle-unstable nuclide (white

ﬁeld without indication of the half-life, e.g.

Li,

He). Simultaneous emission

of two particles is indicated only, if one-particle-emission is excluded for

energetical reasons (e.g.

Be → 2α).

Abundance and Energy of the Emitted Radiation

The relative abundances of the decay modes and the emitted radiation are indicated by 3

different sizes of the coloured sections and by the sequence of the symbols and energy values.

Examples:

ε+β

= 100% ε+β

= 100% α≤ 5% 50%≤ α < 95%

% ε > % β

% β

>% ε (ε+β

)≥ 95% 5%< ε ≤ 50%

ε> % β

50%≤ ε < 95% α ≥ 95% 50%≤ Iγ < 95% ε≥ 95%

5%< α ≤ 50% β

−

≤ 5% 5%< ε ≤ 50% Iγ≤ 5%

γ> γ Iγ < γ

The symbols for the particle emitting decay modes are quoted ﬁrst according to decreasing

abundances, followed by the γ-quanta and conversion electrons. The data for the isomeric

decay have been arranged corresponding to the abundance of this decay mode. β-delayed

particles or ﬁssion (βn, βp, βsf) precede or follow the γ-quanta according to their relative

intensities.

For a given type of radiation the sequence of the energies corresponds to the relative

intensities (in decreasing order) of the respective radiation. In case of β-decay a slightly

different rule is used (see below).

246 Appendices

...

Points indicate further transitions of the same type with lower intensities.

Energies are given in keV for γ-quanta, in MeV for all kinds of particles. A radiation symbol

without energy value indicates that the radiation occurs but the energy has not been measured.

2.7. . .

−

1.2; 1.9. . .

Endpoint energy of the most abundant β-transition. In case further transitions

with higher energies exist, the second number corresponds to the highest end-

point energy observed.

−

...

β-transitions with known energies, for which the sum of their abundances is

less than 1%.

Electron capture is speciﬁed only, if it is more probable than β

-decay.

α 3.75; 4.43. . .

p 1.56

βp 4.5

Particle energies listed according to decreasing abundances of the respective

transitions. At least one energy is given, even if the abundance of the most

prominent group is less than 1%.

γ 815; 1711. . .

γ (1340)

Energies of the strongest γ-quanta arranged in order of decreasing intensities.

Intensities less than 1% are given in brackets.

γ 815

∗

γ-Energies followed by an asterisk denote transitions after β-delayed particle

emission.

γ 291–1319

Several γ-quanta of unknown intensities within the energy interval 291–

1319 keV.

−

Conversion electrons are speciﬁed only if they are more abundant than the

γ-quanta. Energies are not quoted.

Cross Sections

All cross sections are given in barn (10

−24

) and refer to reactions with thermal neutrons

(0.0253 eV).

Cross section for the (n,γ) reaction. If two values are given, the ﬁrst refers

to the formation of the product nucleus in the metastable, the second to the

formation in the ground state.

Fission cross section

n,p

(n,p) cross section

n,α

(n,α) cross section

abs

Absorption cross section

Additional Symbols and Abbreviations



1.92

Cumulative chain yield (%) for the thermal neutron ﬁssion of

235

Nuclides with a closed neutron or proton shell are characterized by heavy

vertical or horizontal lines.

Appendix G: Karlsruhe Chart of the Nuclides – Karlsruher Nuklidkarte 247

m; g

The symbols “m” and/or “g” indicate that the metastable and/or ground state

of the daughter nuclide is populated, respectively. The symbols are presented

in order of decreasing probability. Branches with probabilities less than 5 %

are not shown.

Data or assignment uncertain.

ns, µs, ms, s,

m, h, d, a

Nanosecond, microsecond, millisecond, second, minute, hour, day, year

Arrangement of Symbols and Data

Elements

Symbol of the element

Standard atomic weight based on

C = 12

Absorption cross section for thermal neutrons (b)

Stable Nuclides

Symbol of the element, number of nucleons

Abundance in naturally occuring element (atom %)

(n,γ)-cross sections for the formation of the metastable and the ground

state of

127

Te by thermal neutrons (b)

Symbol of the element, number of nucleons

Left hand side: half-life of metastable state;

γ-energy (keV) of the isomeric transition

Right hand side: abundance in the natural element (atom %)

(n,γ)-cross section for thermal neutrons (b)

Unstable Nuclides

Symbol of the element, number of nucleons

Half-life

Modes of decay, endpoint energy of β

−

radiaton (MeV)

γ-energy (keV)

Conversion electrons, (n,γ)-cross section (b)

Symbol of the element, number of nucleons

Half-lives

Both states decay by electron capture; the metastable state

also to the ground state 5%< Iγ< 95%

248 Appendices

Symbol of the element, number of nucleons

Left hand side: spontaneous ﬁssion isomer, T < 0.1s

Right hand side: decay data of the ground state. “g” indicates that the

daughter

240g

Pu is formed to at least 95%; a population of

240m

up to 5% cannot be excluded.

Special thanks are due to Prof. Dr. H. J. Ache for promoting and support of this work. Further-

more, we express our gratitude to all colleagues who supported this work by presentation of

unpublished results or by discussions.

Index

A1 153, 154, 177

A2 153, 154, 177

Absorbed dose 139, 177, 190

– rate 190

Absorption cross-section 56

Accelerator driven systems 99

Actinide 73, 177

Activation 35

– process 35

Activation products 236

Activity 44, 50

Acute exposure 177

ADR 177

Aerobic decomposition 156

Age 105–108, 111–113, 115

– of groundwater 112

– of plutonium particles 114

– of the earth 109

Agricola 147

Alchemists 43, 44

ALI (annual limit of intake) 143,

144, 177

Alpha 61

–(α) decay 59

– decay 63, 177

– emission 60

– particle 6, 53, 55, 64, 177

– particle mass 189

– rays 5

Alpha-immunotherapy 64, 121, 123

Altamira 111, 112

AMAD 164, 177

Anaxagoras of Clazomenae 1, 2

Anaximander 1, 2

Anaximenes 1, 2

Anderson 74

Angular momentum 8, 9, 30

Annual dose 151

Annual limit of intake 142, 144

– (ALI) 143, 177

Antibody 119

Antimatter 178

Antineutrino 65, 178

Apeiron 1

Archaeological systems 155

Archaeology 105

Aristotle 2, 3

Artiﬁcially induced nuclear reaction 53

Astrophysical clock 108, 109

Atoll geology 159

Atomic mass 20

– number 25, 178

– unit 19, 26, 189

Atomic masses 19, 20, 53 197–227

Atomic number 15, 178

– Z 14

– density 22

Atomic weight 20, 194

– of magnesium 21

Atomism 2

Atomist of antiquity 2

Audi, G. 197

Auger electron emitter 136

Average (mean) lifetime 45

Avogadro 4

Avogadro’s number 21, 22, 189

Azimuthal 10

Bad Gastein 148

Balmer 8, 9

Bare atoms 86

Bare isomers 85, 86

barn 54, 178

Bateman 46, 48

Battle of Öland 156

Becquerel (Bq) 44, 178

Becquerel, Henri 5

250 Index

BeF

Beryllium-8 80

β particles 4

– β

−

– β

−

,d 46

– β

−

n46

– β

−

2n 46

– β

−

3n 46

– β

−

t46

– β

−

α 46

decay process 70

p81

α 80

−

decay process 66

−

emitters 65

−

n emitters 80

β-delayed particle emission 41

Beta

– decay 178

– delayed neutron 60

– particle 6, 178

– rays 5

Beta-minus 61

–(β

−

) decay 59, 64

Beta-plus 61

– β

decay 59, 69

Big bang 93, 178

Binary nuclear reaction 28, 52

Binding energy 24–27, 178

Biological effective dose 120

Biological effects 139

Bioluminescent ﬂowers 133

Bioremediation 153

Blackbody radiation 8

Bladder 141

Blinking 235

BNCT (Boron Neutron Capture Therapy)

120, 121, 178

Bohr 8–10, 12, 13

– atom 8

Bohr, Niels 8, 11

Bohr-Sommerfeld 11

– model of the atom 8, 10

Boiling point 194–196

Boltwood 111

Boltzmann 4

– constant 189

Bone surface 141

Born, Max 13

Boron-8 80

Borromean nuclei 87

Borromean rings 86, 87

Boson 30, 178

Bound beta decay 83, 84

Boyer, K. 95

Brachytherapy 119

– implants 119

Branching 47

– ratio 45–47

Breast 141

Bremsstrahlung 66, 178

Bronze cannon 156

Brown 79

Brownian motion 4

Bunsen 8

Burnable poison 131

Burnout time 56, 57

Cabin personnel 151

Cancer therapy 101

Carbon 15

– ion deposition 119

Carbon-14 82

Cathode rays 4, 5

Cauliﬂower structure 91

Cavendish 3

Chadwick 11, 12, 55

Charts 32

Chelation agent 122

Chemical tracers 125

Chernobyl accident 161

Chiao 94

Chirped-pulse ampliﬁcation 94

Chromosomes 117

Clandestine activities 114

Classical mechanics 23

Classiﬁcation of the elements 16

Clausius 4

Clay 156

– sediments 156

Cliff erosion 109

Cluster emission 41, 60, 82, 234

Cluster emitters 82

Cluster radioactivity 81, 82

cycle 106

CODATA 178, 189

Cold ﬁssion 82

Collective effective dose 142, 178

Colon 141

Committed effective dose 142, 143, 179

Committed equivalent dose 179

Index 251

Common pipelines 127

Compound nucleus 53, 92

Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

(CTBT) 158

Compton effect 179

Conan the bacterium 152

Convergent branches 49

Conversion factors 189, 190

Corpuscles 4

Corrosion 156

Cosmic radiation 106, 151

Cosmic rays 14, 106, 150

Cosmogenic production 55

Cosmogenic radionuclides 106, 179

Critical point 194–196

Critical temperature 194

Criticality 158

Cross-section 38, 54

– data 230

Cumulative dose 179

Curie (Ci) 179

Curie, Pierre 117

Curie, Pierre and Marie 5

Curium oxide 91

DAC (derived air concentration) 144

Dalton 3, 4, 22

Darwin 109

Dating 105

–

C 106

Daudel 83

Daughter nuclide 59

Daughter product 46, 179

Davisson 12

de Broglie 12, 13

– relation 12

– wavelength 65, 99

de Hevesy, George 125, 126

Dead Sea scrolls 105

Decay 35

– chain 46, 233

– chain simulator 233

– constant 44, 46, 47, 89, 90

– energy 29, 52, 53, 63, 66–72, 79

– engine 39

– modes 59

– of bare nuclei 83

– of bare nuclei-bound beta decay 59

– processes 36

Decontamination 179

Deinococcus radiodurans 152

Delayed neutron emission 75, 80

Delayed neutrons 74

Democritus 3, 4

Dendritic crystals 91

Density gauging 132

Derived air concentration (DAC) 144

Derived water concentration (DWC) 144

Deterministic effects 139

Deuterons 16

Direct charge battery 136

Direct conversion batteries 136

Dirty bombs 162

Discovery of radioactivity 5

Disintegration 179

Divergent branches 49

DNA (deoxyribonic acid) 117, 133, 139,

147

Dose 179

– coefﬁcient e(τ) 180

Dose-response relation 145

Dosimetry and shielding 38

Double beta decay 41

Doubly magic 33, 82, 83, 91

Drip-lines 33, 180

Dunarobba forest 156

DWC (derived water concentration) 144

Effective dose 139, 141, 180

– coefﬁcients 142, 143

Einstein 4, 8

Einstein’s mass/energy equivalence 23

Eleatic school 2

Electron 4, 6, 12, 20, 180

– capture 59, 61, 71, 90

– charge 189

– induced reactions 90

– rest mass 189

– volt 19

Electronic nuclide charts 36

Element

– 107 (Bohrium) 92

– 108 (Hassium) 92

– 109 (Meitnerium) 92

– 112 42

– 118 92

Elemental atomic weight A 20

Eleven-year cycle 150

Elliptical orbits 10

Emanation 43

Empedocles 2, 3

– of Agrigentum 1, 2

252 Index

Endpoint energy 65

Energy equivalent 19, 24

Energy level diagram 29, 30, 64, 66, 71,

72, 84

Engineered barriers 155

Environmental change 155

Epicurus 3

Epidemiological studies 146

Epithermal neutrons 180

Equivalent dose 139, 140, 180, 190

– rate 141, 190

Erz Mountains 147

External beam radiotherapy 119

Fangataufa atoll 158–161

Feldman 94

Fermi 74

Fermion 30, 181

Fermium-256 74

Fireﬂies 133

Fission 55, 56, 181

– fragments 74, 82

– tracks 108

– yield 38

– yield distributions 75

Flerov 73

Flerov’s nuclide chart 92

Fluorescence 5

Food irradiation 134

Fossilised trees 156

French Polynesian atolls 158

Frisch 73

Fundamental forces 181

Fundamental particles 12, 182

Fusion 17, 28

– reaction 16, 55

Gadolinium 131

Galactic cosmic radiation 151

Gamma 61

– cameras 117

– emission 59, 67

– imaging 117

– knife 119

– radiation 59, 181

– radiography 133

– ray radiography 128

Gamow theory 89

Gastein 148

Gauging 126, 128

Geiger 7

General Electric 32

– Chart of the Nuclides 40

– nuclide chart 34

– Colour Scheme 231

Genetic manipulation 152

Genetic modiﬁcation 133

Geological repository 181

Germer 12

Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung

(GSI) 42

Glioblastoma 181

Gluon(s) 12, 181

Goiˆania radiation incident 162

Goldansky 77

Gonads 141

Gram atomic weight 21

Gram molecular weight 21

Gray 139, 181, 190

Greek alphabet 189, 190

Greek elements 1

Greiner, W. 81

Groundwater movement 155

GSI 84, 92, 119

Guarapari 146

Gy (Gray) 181, 190

Hadrian’s wall 156

Hadron(s) 12, 181

Hahn 73

Half-life 44, 45, 50, 56, 181

Halo nuclides 86

Heavy ions fusion 98

Heavy-ion radioactivity 59, 61, 81, 82

Helium 6, 15, 110, 111

– burning 15

Helium-3 16

Heraclitus of Ephesus 2

Hf184 235

Hg206 235

High ﬂux reactor 121

High spin states 31

High-ﬂying aircraft 149

Hindrance factors 85

Hofmann 79

Holmes, Arthur 111

Hormesis 145

Hussonois 82

Hutton 109

Hydrogen burning 15, 16

IAEA 38, 181

Index 253

IAEA’s Nuclear Data Centre 38

IC 69

ICRP 140, 141, 143, 148, 151, 181

– risk factors 186

Imaging 117

Immunotherapy 119

Inchtuthil roman nails 156

Independent yields 75

Indivisibility 4

INES (international nuclear event scale)

162, 181

Ingestion 142

Inhalation 142

Insect control 134

Institute for Transuranium Elements

in Karlsruhe 95

Institute of Heavy Ion Research (GSI)

at Darmstadt 83

Intake 142, 143

Interference 12

Internal conversion 61, 68, 86, 182

Internal photoelectric effect 69

International System of Units 19

Iodine isotopes 141

Ioffe 136

Ion beam therapy 119

Ionisation potential 194–196

Ionising radiation 139

Iron 17, 156

Ischia 148

Isobars 14, 15

Isochron method 107, 111

Isochrone 107

Isomer(s) 15, 31, 33, 182

Isomeric state 67

Isomeric transition (IT) 31, 61, 67

Isotone(s) 14, 15, 182

Isotope(s) 12, 14, 15, 20, 111, 182

–

225

Ac 49

–

241

Am 82, 138

–

171

Au 79

–

B30

–

114

Ba 82

–

131

Ba 90

–

137m

Ba 68, 69

–

140

Ba 51

–

Be 73, 90

–

Be 46, 73, 87

–

Be 46

–

Be 46

–

Be 46, 87

–

Be 87

–

185

Bi 79

–

213

Bi 122

–

Br 30

–

Br 80

–

C 30, 31, 82, 87

–

C30

–

C 67, 81, 111, 114, 138

–

C87

–

Ca 86

–

100

Cd 82

–

146

Ce 52

–

252

Cf 73

–

Cl 30

–

Cl 66, 67

–

242

Cm 138

–

244

Cm 138

–

244

–

53m

Co 77

–

Co 163

–

113

Cs 79

–

134

Cs 138

–

137

Cs 68, 69

–

F 30, 53

–

F30

–

256

100

Fm 74

–

264

Fm 82

–

221

Fr 82

–

Ga 118

–

H30

–

H30

–

H 138

–

He 112

–

He 33

–

He 87

–

He 46

–

He 87

–

178n

Hf 31

–

109

I79

–

123

I 118

–

127

I30

–

131

I 118

–

111

In 118