Kurfess T.R. Robotics and Automation Handbook

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ROBOTICS AND

AUTOMATION HANDBOOK

EDITED BY

Thomas R. Kurfess

Ph.D., P.E.

CRC PRESS

Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

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Library of Congress Card Number 2004049656

Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

Printed on acid-free paper

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Robotics and automation handbook / edited by Thomas R. Kurfess.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-8493-1804-1 (alk. paper)

1. Robotics--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Kurfess, Thomas R.

TJ211.R5573 2000

629.8’92—dc21 2004049656

1804_Disclaimer.fm Page 1 Tuesday, August 17, 2004 3:07 PM

Preface

Robots are machines that have interested the general population throughout history. In general, they are

machines or devices that operate automatically or by remote control. Clearly people have wanted to use

such equipment since simple devices were developed. The word robot itself comes from Czech robota,

“servitude, forced labor,” and was coined in 1923 (from dictionary.com). Since then robots have been

characterized by the media as machines that look similar to humans. Robots such as “Robby the Robot”

or Robot from the Lost in Space television series deﬁned the appearance of robots to several generations.

However, robots are more than machines that walk around yelling “Danger!” They are used in a variety of

tasks from the very exciting, such as space exploration (e.g., the Mars Rover), to the very mundane (e.g.,

vacuuming your home, which is not a simple task). They are complex and useful systems that have been

employed in industry for several decades. As technology advances, the capability and utility of robots have

increased dramatically. Today, we have robots that assemble cars, weld, ﬂy through hostile environments,

and explore the harshest environments from the depths of the ocean, to the cold and dark environment of

the Antarctic, to the hazardous depths of active volcanoes, to the farthest reaches of outer space. Robots

take on tasks that people do not want to perform. Perhaps these tasks are too boring, perhaps they are too

dangerous, or perhaps the robot can outperform its human counterpart.

This text is targeted at the fundamentals of robot design, implementation, and application. As robots

are used in a substantial number of functions, this book only scratches the surface of their applications.

However, it does provide a ﬁrm basis for engineers and scientists interested in either fabrication or utilizing

robotic systems. The ﬁrst part of this handbook presents a number of design issues that must be considered

in building and utilizing a robotic system. Both issues related to the entire robot, such as control and

trajectory planning and dynamics are discussed. Critical concepts such as precision control of rotary and

linear axesare also presentedatthey arenecessary to yield optimal performance out of a robotic system. The

book then continues with a number of specialized applications of robotic systems. In these applications,

such as the medical arena, particular design and systems considerations are presented that are highlighted

by these applications but are critical in a signiﬁcant cross-section of areas. It was a pleasure to work with

the authors of the various sections. They are experts in their areas, and in reviewing their material, I have

improved my understanding of robotic systems. I hope that the readers will enjoy reading the text as much

as I have enjoyed reading and assembling it. I anticipate that future versions of this book will incorporate

more applications as well as advanced concepts in robot design and implementation.

The Editor

Thomas R. Kurfess received his S.B., S.M., and Ph.D. degrees in mechanical engineering from M.I.T. in

1986, 1987, and 1989, respectively. He also received an S.M. degree from M.I.T. in electrical engineering

and computer science in 1988. Following graduation, he joined Carnegie Mellon University where he rose

to the rank of Associate Professor. In 1994 he moved to the Georgia Institute of Technology where he is

currently a Professor in the George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering. He presently serves

as a participating guest at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in their Precision Engineering

Program. He is also a special consultant of the United Nations to the Government of Malaysia in the area

of applied mechatronics and manufacturing. His research work focuses on the design and development

of high precision manufacturing and metrology systems. He has chaired workshops for the National

Science Foundation on the future of engineering education and served on the Committee of Visitors for

NSF’s Engineering Education and Centers Division. He has had similar roles in education and technology

assessment for a variety of countries as well as the U.N.

His primary area of research is precision engineering. To this end he has applied advanced control theory

to both measurement machines and machine tools, substantially improving their performance. During

the past twelve years, Dr. Kurfess has concentrated in precision grinding, high-speed scanning coordinate

measurement machines, and statistical analysis of CMM data. He is actively involved in using advanced

mechatronics units in large scale applications to generate next generation high performance systems. Dr.

Kurfess has a number of research projects sponsored by both industry and governmental agencies in this

area. He has also given a number of workshops, sponsored by the National Science Foundation, in the

areas of teaching controls and mechatronics to a variety of professors throughout the country.

In 1992 he was awarded a National Science Foundation Young Investigator Award, and in 1993 he

received the National Science Foundation Presidential Faculty Fellowship Award. He is also the recipient

of the ASME Pi Tau Sigma Award, the SME Young Manufacturing Engineer of the Year Award, the ASME

Gustus L. Larson Memorial Award and the ASME Blackall Machine Tool and Gage Award. He has received

the Class of 1940 W. Howard Ector’s Outstanding Teacher Award and the Outstanding Faculty Leadership

for the Development of Graduate Research Assistants Award while at Georgia Tech. He is a registered

Professional Engineer, and is active in several engineering societies, including ASEE, ASME, ASPE, IEEE

and SME. He is currently serving as a Technical Associate Editor of the SME Journal of Manufacturing

Systems, and Associate Editor of the ASME Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. He has served

as an Associate Editor of the ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement and Control.Heisonthe

Editorial Advisory Board of the International Journal of Engineering Education, and serves on the board of

North American Manufacturing Research Institute of SME.

Contributors

Mohan Bodduluri

Restoration Robotics

Sunnyvale, California

Wayne J. Book

Georgia Institute of Technology

Woodruff School of

Mechanical Engineering

Atlanta, Georgia

StephenP.Buerger

Massachusetts Institute of

Technology

Mechanical Engineering

Department

North Cambridge,

Massachusetts

Keith W. Bufﬁnton

Bucknell University

Department of Mechanical

Engineering

Lewisburg, Pennsylvania

Francesco Bullo

University of Illinois at

Urbana-Champaign

Coordinated Science

Laboratory

Urbana, Illinois

Gregory S. Chirikjian

Johns Hopkins University

Department of Mechanical

Engineering

Baltimore, Maryland

Darren M. Dawson

Clemson University

Electrical and Computer

Engineering

Clemson, South Carolina

Bram de Jager

Technical University of

Eindhoven

Eindhoven, Netherlands

Jaydev P. Desai

Drexel University

MEM Department

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Jeanne Sullivan Falcon

National Instruments

Austin, Texas

Daniel D. Frey

Massachusetts Institute of

Technology

Mechanical Engineering

Department

North Cambridge,

Massachusetts

Robert B. Gillespie

University of Michigan

Ann Arbor, Michigan

J. William Goodwine

Notre Dame University

Aerospace and Mechanical

Engineering Department

Notre Dame, Indiana

Hector M. Gutierrez

Florida Institute of Technology

Department of Mechanical and

Aerospace Engineering

Melbourne, Florida

Yasuhisa Hirata

Tohoku University

Department of Bioengineering

and Robotics

Sendai, Japan

Neville Hogan

Massachusetts Institute of

Technology

Mechanical Engineering

Department

North Cambridge,

Massachusetts

Kun Huang

University of Illinois at

Urbana-Champagne

Coordinated Sciences

Laboratory

Urbana, Illinois

Hodge E. Jenkins,

Mercer University

Mechanical and Industrial

Engineering Department

Macon, Georgia

Dragan Kosti

Technical University of

Eindhoven

Eindhoven, Netherlands

Kazuhiro Kosuge

Tohoku University

Department of Bioengineering

and Robotics

Sendai, Japan

Kenneth A. Loparo

Case Western Reserve

University

Department of Electrical

Engineering and

Computer Science

Cleveland, Ohio

Lonnie J. Love

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Oak Ridge, Tennessee

StephenJ.Ludwick

Aerotech, Inc.

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Yi Ma

University of Illinois

at Urbana-Champagne

Coordinated Sciences

Laboratory

Urbana, Illinois

Siddharth P. Nagarkatti

MKS Instruments, Inc.

Methuen, Massachusetts

Mark L. Nagurka

Marquette University

Department of Mechanical and

Industrial Engineering

Milwaukee, Wisconsin

Chris A. Raanes

Accuray Incorporated

Sunnyvale, California

William Singhose

Georgia Institute of Technology

Woodruff School of

Mechanical Engineering

Atlanta, Georgia

Mark W. Spong

University of Illinois at

Urbana-Champagne

Coordinated Sciences

Laboratory

Urbana, Illinois

Maarten Steinbuch

Technical University of

Eindhoven

Eindhoven, Netherlands

Wesley L. Stone

Valparaiso University

Department of Mechanical

Engineering

Wanatah, Indiana

Ioannis S. Vakalis

Institute for the Protection and

Security of the Citizen

(IPSC) European Commission

Joint Research Centre I

Ispra (VA), Italy

Milo

Zefran

University of Illinois

ECE Department

Chicago, Illinois

Contents

1 The History of Robotics

Wesley L. Stone

2 Rigid-Body Kinematics

Gregorg S. Chirikjian

3 Inverse Kinematics

Bill Goodwine

4 Newton-Euler Dynamics of Robots

Mark L. Nagurka

5 Lagrangian Dynamics

Milo

Zefran and Francesco Bullo

6 Kane’s Method in Robotics

Keith W. Bufﬁnton

7 The Dynamics of Systems of Interacting Rigid Bodies

Kenneth A. Loparo and Ioannis S. Vakalis

8 D-H Convention

Jaydev P. Desai

9 Trajectory Planning for Flexible Robots

William E. Singhose

10 Error Budgeting

Daniel D. Frey

11 Design of Robotic End Effectors

Hodge Jenkins

12 Sensors

Jeanne Sullivan Falcon

13 Precision Positioning of Rotary and Linear Systems

Stephen Ludwick

Modeling and Identiﬁcation for Robot Motion Control

Dragan Kosti´c, Bram de Jager, and Maarten Steinbuch

Motion Control by Linear Feedback Methods

Dragan Kosti´c, Bram de Jager, and Maarten Steinbuch

16 Force/Impedance Control for Robotic Manipulators

Siddharth P. Nagarkatti and Darren M. Dawson

17 Robust and Adaptive Motion Control of Manipulators

Mark W. Spong

18 Sliding Mode Control of Robotic Manipulators

Hector M. Gutierrez

19 Impedance and Interaction Control

Neville Hogan and Stephen P. Buerger

Coordinated Motion Control of Multiple Manipulators

Kazuhiro Kosuge and Yasuhisa Hirata

21 Robot Simulation

Lonnie J. Love

22 A Survey of Geometric Vision

Kun Huang and Yi Ma

23 Haptic Interface to Virtual Environments

R. Brent Gillespie

24 Flexible Robot Arms

WayneJ.Book

25 Robotics in Medical Applications

Chris A. Raanes and Mohan Bodduluri

26 Manufacturing Automation

Hodge Jenkins

The History of

Robotics

Wesley L. Stone

Western Carolina University

1.1 The History of Robotics

The Inﬂuence of Mythology

•

The Inﬂuence of Motion Pictures

•

Inventions Leading to Robotics

•

First Use of the Word Robot

•

First Use of the Word Robotics

•

The Birth of the Industrial

Robot

•

Robotics in Research Laboratories

•

Robotics in Industry

•

Space Exploration

•

Military and Law

Enforcement Applications

•

Medical Applications

•

Other Applications and Frontiers of Robotics

1.1 The History of Robotics

The history of robotics is one that is highlighted by a fantasy world that has provided the inspiration

to convert fantasy into reality. It is a history rich with cinematic creativity, scientiﬁc ingenuity, and en-

trepreneurial vision. Quite surprisingly, the deﬁnition of a robot is controversial, even among roboticists.

At one end of the spectrum is the science ﬁction version of a robot, typically one of a human form — an

android or humanoid — with anthropomorphic features. At the other end of the spectrum is the repetitive,

efﬁcient robot of industrial automation. In ISO 8373, the International Organization for Standardization

deﬁnes a robot as “an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator with three

or more axes.” The Robot Institute of America designates a robot as “a reprogrammable, multifunctional

manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through various programmed

motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.” A more inspiring deﬁnition is offered by Merriam-

Webster, stating that a robot is “a machine that looks like a human being and performs various complex

acts (as walking or talking) of a human being.”

1.1.1 The Influence of Mythology

Mythology is ﬁlled with artiﬁcial beings across all cultures. According to Greek legend, after Cadmus

founded the city of Thebes, he destroyed the dragon that had slain several of his companions; Cadmus

then sowed the dragon teeth in the ground,from which a ﬁerce army of armed men arose. Greek mythology

also brings the story of Pygmalion, a lovesick sculptor, who carves a woman named Galatea out of ivory;

after praying to Aphrodite, Pygmalion has his wish granted and his sculpture comes to life and becomes

his bride. Hebrew mythology introduces the golem, a clay or stone statue, which is said to contain a scroll

with religious or magic powers that animate it; the golem performs simple, repetitive tasks, but is difﬁcult

to stop. Inuit legend in Greenland tells of the Tupilaq, or Tupilak, which is a creature created from natural

-2 Robotics and Automation Handbook

materials by the hands of those who practiced witchcraft; the Tupilaq is then sent to sea to destroy the

enemies of the creator, but an adverse possibility existed — the Tupilaq can be turned on its creator if the

enemy knows witchcraft. The homunculus, ﬁrst introduced by 15th Century alchemist Paracelsus, refers

to a small human form, no taller than 12 inches; originally ascribed to work associated with a golem, the

homunculus became synonymous with an inner being, or the “little man” that controls the thoughts of

a human. In 1818, Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley wrote Frankenstein, introducing the creature created by

scientist Victor Frankenstein from various materials, including cadavers; Frankenstein’s creation is grossly

misunderstood, which leads to the tragic deaths of the scientist and many of the loved ones in his life. These

mythological tales, and many like them, often have a common thread: the creators of the supernatural

beings often see their creations turn on them, typically with tragic results.

1.1.2 The Influence of Motion Pictures

The advent of motion pictures brought to life many of these mythical creatures, as well as a seemingly

endless supply of new artiﬁcial creatures. In 1926, Fritz’s Lang’smovie“Metropolis” introduced the ﬁrst

robot in a feature ﬁlm. The 1951 ﬁlm “The Day the Earth Stood Still” introduced the robot Gort and

the humanoid alien Klaatu, who arrived in Washington, D.C., in their ﬂying saucer. Robby, the Robot,

ﬁrst made his appearance in “Forbidden Planet” (1956), becoming one of the most inﬂuential robots

in cinematic history. In 1966, the television show “Lost in Space” delivered the lovable robot B-9, who

consistently saved the day, warning Will Robinson of aliens approaching. The 1968 movie “2001: A Space

Odyssey” depicted a space mission gone awry, where Hal employed his artiﬁcial intelligence (AI) to wrest

control of the space ship from the humans he was supposed to serve. In 1977, “Star Wars” brought to life

two of the most endearing robots ever to visit the big screen — R2-D2 and C3PO. Movies and television

have brought to life these robots, which have served in roles both evil and noble. Although just a small

sampling, they illustrate mankind’s fascination with mechanical creatures that exhibit intelligence that

rivals, and often surpasses, that of their creators.

1.1.3 Inventions Leading to Robotics

The ﬁeld of robotics has evolved over several millennia, without reference to the word robot until the early

20th Century. In 270 B.C., ancient Greek physicist and inventor Ctesibus of Alexandria created a water

clock, called the clepsydra, or “water-thief,” as it translates. Powered by rising water, the clepsydra employed

a cord attached toaﬂoatand stretched across a pulley to track time. Apparently, the contraption entertained

many who watched it passing away the time, or stealing their time, thus earning its namesake. Born in

Lyon, France, Joseph Jacquard (1752–1834) inherited his father’s small weaving business but eventually

went bankrupt. Following this failure, he worked to restore a loom and in the process developed a strong

interest in mechanizing the manufacture of silk. After a hiatus in which he served for the Republicans in

the French Revolution, Jacquard returned to his experimentation and in 1801 invented a loom that used a

series of punched cards to control the repetition of patterns used to weave cloths and carpets. Jacquard’s

card system was later adapted by Charles Babbage in early 19th Century Britain to create an automatic

calculator, the principles of which later led to the development of computers and computer programming.

The inventor of the automatic riﬂe, Christopher Miner Spencer (1833–1922) of Manchester, Connecticut,

is also credited with giving birth to the screw machine industry. In 1873, Spencer was granted a patent for

the lathe that he developed, which included a camshaft and a self-advancing turret. Spencer’s turret lathe

took the manufacture of screws to a higher level of sophistication by automating the process. In 1892,

Seward Babbitt introduced a motorized crane that used a mechanical gripper to remove ingots from a

furnace, 70 years prior to General Motors’ﬁrst industrial robot used for a similar purpose. In the 1890s

Nikola Tesla — known for his discoveries in AC electric power, the radio, induction motors, and more —

invented the ﬁrst remote-controlled vehicle, a radio-controlled boat. Tesla was issued Patent #613.809 on

November 8, 1898, for this discovery.