Jackson Mark. Machining with Abrasives
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1 Abrasive Tools and Bonding Systems 77
Chapter 2
Heat Treatment and Performance of Vitrified
Grinding Wheels
Mark J. Jackson
Abstract The heat treatment of vitrified grinding wheels is presented in this article.
The article describes the minerals formed during the heat treatment of vitrified
grinding wheels and presents two case studies where the effects of interfacial
compounds and the dissolution of quartz are documented in terms of the wea r of
grinding wheels. The article should prove useful to industrial engineers who are
responsible for selecting firing conditions and the raw materials used for high
performance vitrified grinding wheels.
Keywords Heat treatment Vitrification Grinding wheels
2.1 Introduction
Grinding wheels of various types, sizes and shapes, are geometrically defined
bodies consisting of abrasive grains bonded with various types of ceramic bond.
During heat treatment, or firing, the alumina and bonding minerals react with
the bond, and this has an important effect on the prope rties of the resultant tool.
For this reason, studies of the structure of abrasive tools made of alumina, and the
determination of the phase composition and structure of their bonds, are important
research tasks. Generally speaking, grinding whe els are made in the following way.
The bon d materials are ground until they can pass through a 120 mesh screen
without leaving a residue, weighed and mixed. The firing resistance of the bond is
checked and it is then passed to the press shop. Here, alumina of the required size
M.J. Jackson (*)
MET, College of Technology, Purdue University, 401 North Grant Street, West Lafayette,
IN 47907, USA
e-mail: jacksomj@purdue.edu
M.J. Jackson and J. P. Davim (eds.), Machining with Abrasives,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-7302-3_2,
#
Springer ScienceþBusiness Media, LLC 2011
79
and the bond materials are weighed in the quantities specified by the formulation,
moistened with a dextrin or sodium silicate solution and thoroughly mixed in a
planetary mixer. The finished molding material is carefully weighed into exact
portions that are then poured into moulds and compressed to the required volume.
The molded product is then dried at 90–100
and fired. Heat treatment, or firing,
takes place at temperatures of 1,250–1,300
, in continuous or batch furnaces.
The relatively long firing time s (up to 80–120 h) are du e firstly to the non-
uniformity of abrasive tools, composed of abrasiv e grain and ceramic bond, and
secondly to the need for the bond to become suffic iently mobile to coat the abrasive
grains without disturbing the structure of the tool, or deforming it. Firing time, and
more importantly, the length of time spent in the pre-heating and cooling zones of
the kiln also depend on the dimensions of the abrasive tools, and increase with their
size. Fired grinding wheels are machined on lathes to the required shape and size.
Finished abrasive tools undergo hardness tests, and grinding wheels are additionally
rupture tested at 1.5–2 times their peripheral velocity.
2.2 Grinding Wheel Structure Formation During Heat
Treatment
Ceramic bond materials are made of refractory and fusible clays, feldspar, quartz,
talc and sodium silicate. The chemical composition of ceramic bonds is typically
65–70% SiO
2
, 20–25% Al
2
O
3
and approximately 10% of alkali and alkaline earth
metal oxides. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 give some idea of the structure of an abrasive tool.
They are photographs of polished sections prepared from regular alumina grinding
wheels (grit 46, K-hardness and medium structure (6)). The general appearance of a
section is shown in Fig. 2.1. The micrograph demonstrates the non-uniform struc-
ture of the grinding wheel. In places, the alumina grains are surrounded with a light
film of the bond material, with fine bridges linking the grains and large open pores,
while elsewhere the grains seem to be immersed in the bond, which contains fine
closed pores.
Detailed examination of individual areas of the sectio n clearly demonstrates that
the non-uniformity is much greater than can be seen at low magnifications. Most of
the section consists of grains or fragments of monocrys talline alumina (corundum).
The grains are usually surrounded by fine rims of the bond material, which form
bridges between the corundum grains. Adjoining bridges are separated by large
round pores with smooth internal surfaces (Fig. 2.3). Aggregate grains, consisting
of several corundum crystals cemented by slag interlayers, are broken down by the
bond during firing, and individual corundum crystals become immersed in the glass,
which frequent ly contains crystals produced by the interaction between the acces-
sory minerals of alumina and the bond (Fig. 2.4).
80 M.J. Jackson
Fig. 2.1 Abrasive tool body: dense alumina aggregates cemented with a vitreous bond. Reflected
light, 60 magnification
Fig. 2.2 A meniscus of vitreous bond material between grains. Reflected light, 250 magnification
2 Heat Treatment and Performance of Vitrified Grinding Wheels 81
Fig. 2.3 A section of an abrasive tool showing adjoining bridges are separated by large round
pores with smooth internal surfaces: an aggregate alumina grain broken down by the bond. The
bond contains rutile aggregates (white), pores and microcracks (black). Reflected light, 250
magnification
Fig. 2.4 A section of an abrasive tool: an aggregate alumina grain broken down by the bond. The
bond contains rutile aggregates (white), pores and microcracks (black). Reflected light, 250
magnification
82 M.J. Jackson
Therefore, abrasive tools appear to be the most com plex of silicate products, and
it is quite evident that their properties, like those of any other silicate product, will
be determined by their phase composition, the structure of the bond, the strength of
its adhesion to the alumina grains.
2.2.1 Physico-Chemical Processes that Occur During Firing
Studies of ceramic bonds used in industry, both in their pure state and as part of
alumina abrasive tools, have shown that the firing process converts bonds into non-
uniform glass of complex composition, which on devitrification produces mullite,
cordierite and spinel if the bond contains MgO, and anorthite and mullite if it
contains CaO. The physico-chemical processes occurring during the heat treatment
of abrasive tools can be described as follows. Firing causes the bond to form a liquid
phase, and as the temperature rises, this phase dissolves the other components of the
bond, as well as the surface of alumina grains. The temperature at which the liquid
phase first appears depends on the melting point of the most fusible component of
the ceramic bond. In the industry, this is soluble glass (sodium silicate), which is
either introduced into the bond in its solid state, or forms part of the solution used to
wet the abrasive material during molding. Undoubtedly, if other oxides were also
introduced into the bond in the form of more fusible compounds, they too would act
as solvents and would react with the alumina.
However, because alumina is relatively soluble in alkali oxide components, the
most active solvent is Na
2
O. Since sodium silicate becomes quite mobile even at
650
C, it can be assumed that the dissolution of alumina (and of bond components)
begins at this temperature. Initially, the concentration of Na
2
O in the newly formed
liquid phase is relatively high, up to 25%. As the other bond components and
alumina dissolve (as the temperature increases), the concentration of Na
2
O in the
melt falls, its viscosity rises and at the holding temperature dissolution is virtually
complete.
The interaction between alumina and the bond is illustrated by the figures
contained in Tables 2.1 and 2.2. Table 2.1 gives the fired chemical composition
of several bonds and their heat resistance, or temperature at which melting first
Table 2.1 Fired chemical composition of several bonds and their firing resistance
Bond no.
Chemical composition (wt.%)
Firing resistance
(
C)SiO
2
TiO
2
Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
CaO MgO K
2
ONa
2
O Total
1
2
3
4
5
6
67.68
67.73
67.48
69.14
67.92
67.72
1.34
0.80
Nil
1.14
1.20
0.45
16.58
12.50
3.04
11.31
11.56
13.02
2.40
1.70
1.27
1.91
1.94
2.36
1.45
1.40
1.40
5.40
1.25
0.40
0.54
0.60
0.82
0.62
5.10
0.56
Nil
–
–
–
–
5.43
9.91
14.80
25.74
10.14
10.66
10.08
99.88
99.53
99.75
99.66
99.63
100.02
1,150
970
650
1,060
1,090
1,080
2 Heat Treatment and Performance of Vitrified Grinding Wheels 83
occurs (also known as the bond softening temperature). Table 2.2 contains the
results of determination of Al
2
O
3
in these bonds, extracted from the samples after
heat treatment at various temperatures. The tables demonstrate that there is a direct
relationship between the amount of dissolved alumina, the final firing temperature,
and the alkali content of the bond.
Irrespective of its initial value, the heat resistance reached by the bond material
during the firing process is close to the abrasive tool holding temperature. This
explains, why abrasive products can be fired at temperatures 200
C and even 300
C
higher than the bond softening temperat ures, without the bond leaking and the
products being deform ed. It is interesting to note that bond 5, which contains
magnesium oxide and has high initial heat resistance, dissolved alumina faster
than all the others. This is explain ed by the formation of spinel at the contact
interface with alumina, which prevents rapid increase of the alumina content of the
liquid phase and thus allows it to retain greater mobility.
As the material dissolves, new mullite, anorthite, cordierite and spinel crystals
appear in the liquid phase at 1,200
C. Thus, the first heating stage of the firing
process is the phase of chemical reactions and physico-chemical transformations
through which the bond reaches a state of equilibrium and partial crystallization.
During the holding period, the composition of the bond equalizes and new crystals
appear. This is conditional on the local dissolution of alumina during the heating
period causing its composition to move into the area of molten b ond that is capable
of devitrification. The holding period is therefore chiefly a period when new
compounds formed in the bond crystallize out of the liquid phase.
During the cooling process, the viscosity of the bond increases so much that the
crystallization of new compounds virtually ends. This is why the cooling pattern
seems to play an important part, not in the sense of giving the bond a specific
structure, but in the sense of preventing mechanical stresses arising in grinding
wheels due to their heterogeneous composition, and, more importantly, due to the
simultaneous presence of a crystalline component, i.e. alumina grains and the
vitreous bond. The cooling period is essentially a period when physical changes
take place in the grinding wheel. Studies have shown that the vitreous content of the
Table 2.2 Determination of Al
2
O
3
in these bonds, extracted from the samples after heat treatment
at various temperatures
Bond no.
Al
2
O
3
content (%) of bonds heat treated at various firing temperatures (
C)
450 650 850 1,050 1,250 1,250
a
1,250
b
1
2
3
4
5
6
16.62
12.58
3.06
11.34
11.57
13.12
17.76
16.73
4.67
16.25
13.44
15.58
20.25
21.08
10.52
19.53
18.94
18.76
23.18
23.16
23.57
22.73
23.53
23.08
22.45
24.28
25.98
25.52
26.08
24.33
25.47
26.13
28.34
26.21
29.98
26.46
26.50
28.07
28.98
26.48
30.61
27.44
a
Holding at the final firing temperature (8 h)
b
Holding at the final firing temperature (16 h)
84 M.J. Jackson