Hillstrom K., Hillstrom L.C. Vietnam war. Almanac

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Ho Chi Minh takes over

Japan’s decision to seize formal control over Vietnam

had little practical impact on the war. By this point, the United

States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and other military

partners—collectively known as the Allied Forces—were on

the verge of defeating both Germany and Japan. As the Allied

Forces continued to register big victories in Europe and South-

east Asia, it became clear that Japan would not be able to main-

tain its grip on Indochina for very long.

Ho Chi Minh and other Viet Minh leaders decided to

take advantage of Japan’s crumbling authority. In May 1945,

they organized the Vietnam Liberation Army, a military force

that became the foundation of North Vietnam’s army during

the Vietnam War. The Viet Minh hoped to use this army to

Vietnam and French Colonialism 17

be enough to put the population in an

impossible situation. But now the disaster

fell upon them during wartime and during

a time of economic disorder. Worst of all,

the French colonizers were plotting to

destroy the very vitality of the population,

to increase starvation in every possible way

so as to be able to neutralize the traditional

unyielding spirit of the Vietnamese people,

and thus to rule them easily. For this

reason, from September and October of

1944 onward, everybody realized that the

tragedy of all times could not be avoided.

In normal times harvest season in the

countryside was bustling with the activities

of rice pounding and grinding. But during

the seasonal harvest of the year 1944 things

were completely different. The farmers went

out into the fields, cried to the heavens, and

moaned. People looked at each other with

all hope drained from their eyes and uttered

words that made it seem that they were

saying farewells to one another . . . .

The starvation began in early October.

Earlier than any other year the weather was

cuttingly cold. The north wind howled, and

it pierced through the rags worn by the

hungry and the poor. It penetrated their

flesh and their bones and their weak insides

.... It rained continuously, day and night,

and the dampness seeped into the very

marrow [core] of the hungry . . . . The days

and months dragged by slowly. Rain, wind,

hunger, and cold seemed to slow down the

wheels of time. It was so cold that people

would lie in haystacks, covering themselves

up with banana leaves. They were so

hungry that they had to eat marsh

pennywort [a plant found in the wild],

potato leaves, bran, banana roots, and the

bark of trees. The villagers—fathers and

sons, brothers and sisters, husbands and

wives, all of them alike—could no longer

save one another. Regardless of the time of

day or night, the hungry people, over and

over again, would hug each other and

would moan tragically.

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take control of the country before French forces could re-estab-

lish colonial rule.

In August 1945, Japan fled Indochina for good (it for-

mally surrendered to Allied Forces on September 2, 1945). Ho

Chi Minh and the Viet Minh immediately seized control of

several major Vietnamese cities, including Hanoi and Hue. Ho

Chi Minh’s Communist nationalists then took steps to install

a new government and consolidate their power. On August 25,

1945, Bao Dai stepped down as emperor, announcing that he

would instead serve as an advisor to Ho Chi Minh’s govern-

ment. Bao Dai’s decision convinced many Vietnamese people

to view Ho Chi Minh as their country’s rightful leader.

France looks to reclaim Vietnam

On September 2, 1945, Ho Chi Minh established the

Democratic Republic of Vietnam. He declared that the new

18 Vietnam War: Almanac

The first president of North

Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh, led

the North during the

Vietnam War until his

death in 1969.

Reproduced by permission

of Archive Photos.

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nation would be ruled by its own citizens and that it would be

independent from France and other foreign powers. He even

used words from America’s famous Declaration of Indepen-

dence in his speech, comparing the Vietnamese struggle for

freedom with the United States’ successful bid for indepen-

dence two centuries earlier.

France, however, wanted to regain control of Vietnam.

Most of Europe—including France—had been devastated by

World War II. Many of Europe’s cities had been badly damaged

during the conflict, and the economies of France and other

nations were in terrible condition. Most French leaders

believed that the resources of Vietnam and their other colonial

territories could help France rebuild its cities and industries.

They argued that repossession of Vietnam was essential if they

hoped to recover from their war wounds.

This situation left U.S. political leaders in a difficult

position. They understood the French position, but many peo-

ple in the United States believed that people in Vietnam and

other countries under colonial rule deserved to govern them-

selves. U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945), who

served as president from 1933 until his death on April 12,

1945, even commented once that “after 100 years of French

rule in Indochina, the inhabitants were worse off than they

had been before.” Other American officials thought that

returning Vietnam to the French would spark years of violence

and instability in the region. They believed that the Viet-

namese people would not accept a return to French rule.

After weighing arguments on both sides, U.S. President

Harry Truman (1884–1972; president 1945–1963), who suc-

ceeded Roosevelt after his death, decided to support France’s

efforts to regain Vietnam. He knew that the plan to reintro-

duce colonial rule was a risky one. But as Robert D. Schulzinger

notes in A Time for War, the “political, economic, and even

spiritual lives [of Europe’s nations] had been broken by the

war, and the highest-level American officials believed that the

restoration of their health represented the first priority of the

United States in the postwar world.” Consequently, the United

States did not object when France initiated military operations

in its old colonial territory.

Vietnam and French Colonialism 19

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French forces return to Vietnam

In late 1945, French forces managed to push the Viet

Minh out of most major urban centers in Vietnam’s southern

provinces. Ho Chi Minh and his Communist nationalist army

retreated to bases in the rural north, where they enjoyed

greater popular support. They also lobbied the United States

and other nations for formal recognition of Vietnamese inde-

pendence. In fact, Ho Chi Minh wrote letters to Truman on

eight different occasions, each time asking him to recognize

Vietnamese self-rule. But the United States and other nations

refused to extend this recognition.

In 1946, French and Viet Minh negotiators reached a

compromise. Under this agreement, France agreed to acknowl-

edge the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as a “free state” with

its own government, army, and treasury. In return, Vietnam

agreed to remain a part of the French empire and permit a French

military presence. But the agreement fell apart a few months

later in a flurry of broken promises and disagreements over Viet-

nam’s status. In December 1946, the Viet Minh launched a series

of deadly attacks on French installations throughout Hanoi. The

long-standing hostilities between French and Viet Minh forces

had finally erupted into all-out war.

Sources

Buttinger, Joseph. The Smaller Dragon: A Political History of Vietnam. New

York: Praeger, 1958.

Duiker, William J. The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam. 2nd ed. Boul-

der, CO: Westview Press, 1996.

Dunn, Peter M. The First Vietnam War. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985.

Karnow, Stanley. Vietnam: A History. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin Books,

1997.

Kolko, Gabriel. Anatomy of a War: Vietnam, the United States, and the Mod-

ern Historical Experience. New York: New Press, 1994.

Marr, David G. Vietnamese Anticolonialism 1885–1925. Berkeley: Univer-

sity of California Press, 1971.

Ngo Vinh Long. Before the Revolution: The Vietnamese Peasants Under the

French. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1973.

Schulzinger, Robert D. A Time for War: The United States and Vietnam,

1941–1975. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

20 Vietnam War: Almanac

VWAlm 001-090 7/30/03 3:04 PM Page 20

Summers, Harry Jr. Historical Atlas of the Vietnam War. Boston: Houghton

Mifflin, 1995.

Wiegersma, Nancy. Vietnam: Peasant Land, Peasant Revolution. New York:

St. Martin’s Press, 1988.

Vietnam and French Colonialism 21

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n 1946, the struggle between Vietnam’s French colonial

rulers and its Communist-supported nationalist movement

finally erupted into all-out war. This war—known as the

Indochina War or the First Indochina War (the Vietnam War is

sometimes referred to as the Second Indochina War)—lasted

for eight long years. It finally ended in 1954, after France suf-

fered a humiliating defeat in an area of northern Vietnam

known as Dien Bien Phu.

Stalemate in the early years

From 1946 to 1949 French occupation forces and the

Viet Minh waged bitter war, with neither side able to gain a

meaningful advantage. The nation of France entered the

Indochina War willingly. Both its government and its military

believed that controlling Vietnam was crucial to France’s post-

war economic recovery, and they expressed confidence that their

superior weaponry and resources would lift them to victory.

But the Viet Minh forces proved to be a dedicated

and skilled enemy. Operating in small units that specialized

The Indochina War

(1946–54)

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in guerrilla warfare (surprise attacks and sabotage), these

troops assumed control of significant areas of the country-

side in northern and central Vietnam. They also mounted

occasional strikes in the south, despite the heavy French mil-

itary presence.

In addition, France underestimated Ho Chi Minh’s

(1890–1969) popularity in many Vietnamese communities. His

message of national independence and his promises of land

reform appealed to many Vietnamese, despite their war weari-

ness and reservations about Viet Minh methods (some peas-

ants, for example, were forcibly drafted into the army). In 1949,

France tried to reduce popular support for Ho Chi Minh by

24 Vietnam War: Almanac

Cold War A period of intense rivalry between

the United States and the Soviet Union,

as both nations competed to spread

their political philosophies and influence

around the world after the end of World

War II (1939–45). The climate of distrust

and hostility between the two nations

and their allies dominated international

politics until the 1980s.

Communism A political system in which

the government controls all resources

and means of producing wealth. By

eliminating private property, this sys-

tem is designed to create an equal soci-

ety with no social classes. However,

Communist governments in practice

often limit personal freedom and rights.

Domino Theory A political theory that

holds that the fall of one country’s gov-

ernment to communism usually trig-

gers similar collapses in neighboring

countries, as if the nations were domi-

noes falling in sequence.

Dien Bien Phu A French fort in northwest-

ern Vietnam that, in 1954, was the site

of a major battle in the Indochina War.

Indochina War Later known as the First

Indochina War (the Vietnam War

became the Second Indochina War),

this conflict took place between France

and Communist-led Viet Minh forces in

Vietnam, 1946–54.

Nationalism A feeling of intense loyalty and

devotion to a country or homeland.

Some people argue that nationalism,

rather than communism, was the main

factor that caused the Viet Minh to fight

the French for control of Vietnam.

Viet Minh Communist-led nationalist group

that worked to gain Vietnam’s indepen-

dence from French colonial rule.

Words to Know

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introducing a new Vietnamese govern-

ment headed by Bao Dai (1913–), who

had previously ruled as emperor from

1926 to 1945. But most people recog-

nized that this new regime (govern-

ment) was still under the control of the

French, and the strategy failed.

As the months passed with no

apparent progress in its efforts to

smash the Vietnamese rebellion,

France became divided over whether

to continue its efforts. After all, the

Viet Minh continued to operate

throughout the north, and the guer-

rilla movement seemed to be growing

in the south as well. Moreover, the

French troops found it very difficult

to distinguish between peaceful Viet-

namese and those that actually car-

ried out Viet Minh missions. “The

Viet Minh were like fish in water,”

recalled one Viet Minh official. “That

was our slogan. Our fighters moved

and worked among the people like

fish in water.”

The Cold War

As the Indochina War dragged

on, it became part of a larger struggle

that was taking shape at the same

time between the United States and

the Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics (USSR), also known as the

Soviet Union. This struggle, which

developed in the months immedi-

ately after World War II (1939–45)

and quickly grew into the dominant

factor in international politics for the

next four decades, was known as the

“Cold War.”

The Indochina War (1946–54) 25

People to Know

Bao Dai (1913–) Vietnamese political

leader who served as emperor and

head of state under French colonial

rule, 1926–1945 and 1949–1955.

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969) A

top U.S. general during World War II

(1939–45) who served as the 34th

president of the United States,

1953–1961. Although he was com-

mitted to stopping the spread of com-

munism in Asia, he was reluctant to

take direct military action in Vietnam.

Ho Chi Minh (1890–1969) Vietnamese

Communist leader who led Viet Minh

forces in opposing French rule and

became the first president of North

Vietnam in 1954. He also led the

North during the Vietnam War until

his death.

Richard M. Nixon (1913–1994) U.S. vice

president under Eisenhower. Elected

as the 37th president of the United

States in 1969, at the height of the

Vietnam War. Resigned from office

during the Watergate scandal in 1974.

Harry S. Truman (1884–1972) Served as

the 33rd president of the United

States, 1945–1953. Did not oppose

France reclaiming control over Viet-

nam after World War II (1939–45).

Vo Nguyen Giap (1911–) North Viet-

namese general and Communist Party

leader during the First Indochina War

and the Vietnam War.

VWAlm 001-090 7/30/03 3:04 PM Page 25

The Cold War was essentially an intense rivalry between

two dramatically different political and economic philosophies.

The United States and its allied nations (nations that join

together for a common cause) believed in principles of democ-

racy and capitalism. In contrast, the Soviet Union and some

other countries, including China, supported communism.

These differences created extreme distrust and hostility on both

sides. Before long, the United States and the USSR were engaged

in a fierce competition to establish their political philosophies

and influence in all corners of the world. As this political battle

unfolded, both sides also raced to develop their military forces

and weaponry. When this “arms race” developed, the two sides

became even more suspicious and fearful of one another.

26 Vietnam War: Almanac

In September 1945, Army Major A.

Peter Dewey became the first American

soldier to die in Vietnam. Dewey had been

assigned to Vietnam as part of a U.S. effort

to search for American troops who had

been captured by the Japanese or

disappeared in Southeast Asia during

World War II (1939–45). At the same time,

British forces poured into the country in

order to disarm the few remaining

Japanese troops in the region. These British

troops also helped French forces re-

establish control of Saigon and other

important areas in mid-1945.

As he traveled around Vietnam,

Dewey became alarmed at the chaotic

conditions in some areas of the country

and the hatred that many Vietnamese

expressed for the French. “Cochinchina is

burning, the French and British are finished

here, and we [the United States] ought to

clear out of Southeast Asia,” he stated in

one report. British Major General Douglas

D. Gracey, commander of the British

mission to disarm the Japanese, grew

angry with the American’s criticism of

France’s operations in the country. He

finally ordered Dewey out of Vietnam

because of concerns that the major was

actually sympathetic to the Viet Minh.

On the morning of September 26,

1945, Dewey set out for the Saigon airport

to return to the United States. En route to

the airport, however, he was ambushed by

a small number of Viet Minh who

mistakenly identified him as a French

officer. They killed him with a burst of

machine gun fire, making him the first of

nearly 60,000 Americans to lose their lives

in Vietnam.

First American Casualty in Vietnam

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By 1947, U.S. President Harry

Truman (1884–1972; president 1945–

1963) had become convinced that the

Soviet Union and its Communist phi-

losophy posed a tremendous threat to

the safety and well-being of the United

States and its allies. The Soviets had

helped bring Communist governments

to power in a number of Eastern Euro-

pean countries, and they seemed

intent on expanding their influence in

other areas of the globe as well. In

response to the growing Soviet spon-

sorship of Communist activities

around the world, Truman devised a

policy that came to be known as the

“containment doctrine.” It authorized

the United States to provide financial

and/or military aid to any nation

threatened by Communist forces.

Truman’s policy was widely

supported by the American public. It

also was praised by most U.S. military

and political leaders. These leaders had

been profoundly disturbed by the flood of new Communist

governments in Eastern Europe. They saw Truman’s contain-

ment doctrine as the United States’ best defense against the

“Domino Theory,” a political theory that had rapidly gained

acceptance in U.S. military and government circles. According

to this theory, the loss of one country to communism usually

triggered similar collapses in neighboring countries, as if the

nations were dominoes falling against one another in succes-

sion. By the early 1950s, this theory had become an essential

factor in most U.S. foreign policy decisions.

United States provides active support

to France

In 1949 and 1950, several significant political changes

took place around the world. In 1949, Communists under the

leadership of Mao Zedong (1893–1976) took control of China

The Indochina War (1946–54) 27

Former U.S. President

Harry Truman.

Reproduced by permission of

the Library of Congress.

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