Guy R. Extrusion Cooking - Technologies and Applications
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
acoustics-based sensors 95, 96
air-induced puffing 158
albumins 8, 21
amino acids 112–13
amylopectin (AP) 7–8, 14–15
amylose (AM) 7, 14–15
angular deflection strain gauges 94
Annatto 26
anthocyanins 119
antinutrients 119–20
antioxidants 114
ascorbic acid 117
axial mixing 149, 150
baby cereals 193, 195
baby foods 182–99
extrusion system for 184–92
conductive energy 188–9
convective energy 189
conversion energy 189–91
defining cooking of cereals 185–8
twin-screw extrusion 192
very low shear extrusion 192
market for 193–4
processing benefits of twin-screw
extrusion 196–7
products 194–6
socio-economic future of production
197–8
traditional batch processing 183–4
barrel
local thermal balance 53–4
pressure 58–66
temperature 58–66, 94
batch cookers 184
batch processing 183–4
belt feeder 94
beta-carotene 26, 116–17
beta-glucans 116
Biot number 148
biscuits 163, 178–80
co-extrusion with secondary filling 179
co-extrusion with soft filling 178–9
co-extrusion of two biscuits 179–80
bran 8, 25
breadsticks 163
breakfast cereals 10, 11, 133–60
consumption 108, 133–5
future trends 159
key process issues 139–46
delayed expansion extrusion-cooking
142–6
direct expansion extrusion-cooking
140–2, 143
main unit operations and technologies
146–58
die texturization 154–6
drying and toasting 156–8
extrusion-cooking 150–6
preconditioning 147–50
Index
thermomechanical cooking 150–4
product range 136–9
types of 135
browning 158
see also Maillard reactions
bulk density 89, 101–3
calcium carbonate 10, 25
Canthaxthin 26
capillary viscometer 95
carbohydrates 110–12
see also starch; sugars
carotenoids 116–17
Carri-Med rheometer 95
caseinate 77
cereal mixes 136, 137, 138–9
cereals
baby cereals 193, 195
breakfast cereals see breakfast cereals
sources of starch 15–20
cheesy pretzels 194
children 136
classification of ingredients 7–11
co-extruded snacks 177–80
biscuit with soft filling 178–9
with secondary filling 179
two biscuits 179–80
colon cancer 116
colour 88–9
see also browning; Maillard reactions
colouring sustances 10, 25–6
conductive energy 188–9
consumer requirements 88–90
consumption
breakfast cereals 108, 133–5
snack foods 108
control points 90–3
controlled process variables 92
convective energy 189
convective heat transfer coefficient
between cooling fluid and barrel 75–6
between material and barrel 54–6, 76
conversion energy 189–91
conveyor driers 158
cooling fluid 73–7
co-rotating twin-screw extruders 42
counter-rotating twin-screw extruders 42
cutting 172, 177
under oil 195–6
delayed expansion extrusion-cooking 135,
140, 142–6, 150–2, 158
design
die 91
process control 92–3
of rotating knife 91
desorption isotherm 156–7
developing countries 109, 194, 196–8
die
design 91
pressure 95
temperature 94
texturization 154–6
die swell effect 8–9, 177
digestibility of starch 110–12
direct current tachometer 94
direct expansion extrusion-cooked
(DEEC) breakfast cereals 135,
138, 140–2, 143, 150–2
die texturization 154–6
drying 156–8
directly expanded extruded snacks 163,
173–7
basic principles of snack extrusion
174–5
flavouring 176
shaping and cutting 177
texture modification 176–7
disk feeder 94
dispersed-phase filling materials 8–9,
21–2
Dittus-Boelter equation 75
dough
formation 164, 166–7
shaping 167
see also formed dough products
driers 158
drum drying 183
dry extruders 36–8, 39
advantages and disadvantages 38
applications 37–8
drying 183
breakfast cereals 156–8
predicting drying time 156–7
process and driers 158
snack foods 165
half-products 172–3
education/training 197–8
electronic noses 96
electronic tongues 96
energy 188–91
see also heat transfer
endosperm 16, 18–19
Index 201
enthalpy of fusion 54
equivalent heat transfer coefficient 74–5,
76
expanders see interrupted flight extruders
expansion
dispersed-phase fillers and 8–9
of half-products 173
expansion chart 154–6
extruders 29–50
advantages of extruder technology 30
dry extruders 36–8, 39
functions 29–30
general design features 31–2
global thermal balance 52–3
interrupted flight extruders 32, 38–42
process parameters 47
production capacities and costs 47
segmented screw/barrel single-screw
wet extruders 31–2, 32–6
selection 30–1
single-screw vs twin-screw 46–7
sizing and thermal optimisation 73–7
future trends 76–7
improvement of temperature control
74–6
twin-screw extruders 31–2, 42–6, 192,
196–7
fats 9, 23–4, 46, 113–14
feed rate
liquid 94
powder 93–4
fibre 8, 114–16, 180
Fick’s second law 147
fillers, dispersed-phase 8–9, 21–2
filling ratio 149–50
fillings, co-extrusion with 178–9
film resistance 147–8
finite element model 69–70, 71–2
flaked cereals 136–8
flaking grits 136, 147–8
flavour 88–9, 176, 180
flavouring substances 11, 26–7, 176, 180
flours 15–20
hydration time 147–8
masa 20, 169–70
physical nature 17–20
pregelatinised 20, 169–70
fluidized bed driers 158
folate 117–18
folic acid 118
formed dough products
maize 162, 169–70
potato 162, 166–9
Fourier number 147–8
frying 167–8
functional foods 109, 121, 122
fuzzy logic controller 196
gelatinization 110, 185–8, 191
glass transition 165, 175
gliadins 21
global thermal balance 52–3
globulins 21
glucosinolates 119
gluten 8
glutenins 21
glycemic index (GI) 111
gravimetric feeders 93, 94
grits 136, 147–8
gun puffing 138, 163
Guy Classification System for ingredients
7–11
half-product snacks 162–3, 170–3
cutting and drying the half-products
172–3
expansion of half-products 173
extrusion cooking for 171–2
three-dimensional snacks 173
hard/vitreous endosperm 19–20
heat of reaction 190–1
heat transfer 51–82
baby food production 188–91
equivalent heat transfer coefficient
74–5, 76
experimental analysis 58–66
methodology and strategy 59–60
research literature 64–6
results 60–4
fundamental parameters 54–8
convective heat transfer coefficient
54–6, 75–6
difficulties in evaluating 58
physical, thermal and rheological
properties of foodstuffs 54
transfer area 56
viscous dissipation 56–7
global thermal balance 52–3
local thermal balance 52, 53–4
sizing and optimisation of extruder
73–7
thermal modelling 66–73
high moisture extrusion 77, 109–10
hydration time 147–8
hydrothermal cooking processes 137, 139
ingredients see raw materials
202 Index
instrumentation 93–7
intermeshing twin-screw extruders 42, 43
internal resistance 147–8
interrupted flight extruders 32, 38–42
advantages and disadvantages 41–2
applications 40–1
iron 118
isoflavones 120
‘knowledge’ models 67–9
knowledge transfer 197–8
length to diameter ratio 91, 150
less-developed countries 109, 194, 196–8
lipids 9, 23–4, 113–14
oxidation 113–14
liquid feed rate 94
local thermal balance 53–4
longitudinal expansion index (LEI)
154–6
loss in weight feeders 94
lubricants 9, 22–4
lysine 112
macronutrients 110–16
carbohydrates 110–12
fibre 114–16
lipids 113–14
proteins and amino acids 112–13
magnetic flow meter 94
Maillard reactions 26, 158, 176
maize 16, 18, 20
formed dough products 162, 169–70
Maltesian cross 185
manipulated process variables 91–2
market
for baby foods 193–4
trends for breakfast cereals 133–5
masa flours/snacks 20, 169–70
melt
rheology 95
temperature 94
melting point 54
metering pumps 94
Micro Fourier Rheometer 95
microbiological quality 90, 194
milk substitute, cereals with 195
minerals 118–19
model predictive control (MPC) 101–3
model reduction 69, 70–2
moisture content 46, 54, 101–3
see also water
mueslis 138–9
natural colours 25–6
near infra red (NIR) spectroscopy 95–6
nixamalisation 20
no shear extrusion 192
non-intermeshing twin-screw extruders
42, 43
nucleating substances 9–10, 25, 176–7
nucleation 173
Nusselt number 55–6, 75
nutritional quality 108–29
breakfast cereals 135, 136
extrusion parameters affecting 109
future trends 120–1, 122
macronutrients 110–16
carbohydrates 110–12
fibre 114–16
lipids 113–14
proteins and amino acids 112–13
minerals 118–19
non-nutrient healthful components of
foods 119–20
vitamins 116–18
oat flours 16
oils 9, 23–4, 113–14
operator-controlled process variables
91–2
orifice meter 94
oxidation, lipid 113–14
paddle configuration 150
pea flour 180
pellet-to-flakes extrusion-cooked (PFEC)
breakfast cereals 135, 140, 142–6,
150–2, 158
pellet processing 77
pellet snacks see half-product snacks
pH 186–8
phenolic compounds 119
phytate 118–19
plasticisers 9, 22–4
plug flow 149
popcorn 163
positive displacement meter 94
potato
formed dough products 162, 166–9
pregelatinised flours 20
raw cut vegetable snacks 162
potato flakes 166–7
potato granules 20, 166–7
potato starch 166–7
powder feed rate 93–4
power exchange 74
Index 203
prawn crackers 161
preconditioners 38, 39, 149–50
preconditioning 77
breakfast cereals 147–50
preconditioning conditions 149–50
predicting hydration time 147–8
residence time distribution 148–9
pregelatinised flours 20, 169–70
pre-gelling process 183–4
pressure
die 95
drops 76
profile along barrel 58–66
pressurization 190
pretzels 194
process control 83–107
in action 100–3
implementation procedure 100–1
MPC 101–3
review 101, 102
baby foods 196–7
benefits of 85–6
challenges 86–8
control loop 84
instrumentation 93–7
product requirements 86–90
key control points in meeting 90–3
requirements to be met 85
process monitoring 97–100
product
requirements and process control
88–90
key control points 90–3
size and shape 89–90
temperature measurement 95
product development 121, 122
programmable logic controller (PLC) 98
proteins 180, 186
dispersed-phase filling materials 8, 22
nutritional quality 112–13
structure-forming materials based on
7–8, 11, 20–1
puffed breakfast cereals 136, 137, 138
predicting drying time 156–7
puffed wheat 163
pulse generator 94
quadratic criterion 70–1
quality 180
nutritional see nutritional quality
radial mixing 149, 150
Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA) 95, 152–4,
192
raw cut vegetable snacks 162
raw materials 5–28
classification by functional role 7–11
colouring substances 10, 25–6
dispersed-phase filling materials 8–9,
21–2
flavouring substances 10, 26–7
general nature 5–6
nucleating substances 9–10, 25
plasticisers and lubricants 9, 22–4
soluble solids 9, 24–5
structure-forming materials 7–8, 11–21
based on protein 7–8, 11, 20–1
based on starch 7–8, 11–20
transformations in extrusion cooking
5–6
real-time predictive model 69, 70–2
reduced model 69, 70–2
relaxation thermograms 71
‘representational’ models 67
residence time distribution (RTD) 148–9
resistant starch (RS) 111
rheological properties 54, 95
see also viscosity
rice 16, 19
rotameter 94
SCADA (Supervisory, Control and Data
Acquisition) systems 97–100
architecture 97–8
design and implementation 99–100
features 99
screw presses 39
screws 31–2
configuration 91
speed 94
wear and minerals 118
see also single-screw extruders; twin-
screw extruders
secondary filling, co-extrusion with 179
sectional expansion index (SEI) 154–6
segmented single-screw wet extruders
31–2, 32–6
advantages and disadvantages 35–6
applications 35
sensible heat 190
sensors 93–7
existing 93–5
novel 95–7
soft 96–7, 101–3
shape, product 89–90
shaping
directly expanded snacks 177
dough 167
204 Index
shear rate 56–7, 185–8, 190
shear stress 185–8, 190
single-screw extruders 31–42
dry extruders 36–8, 39
interrupted flight extruders 32, 38–42
vs twin-screw extruders 46–7
wet extruders 31–2, 32–6
single-screw feeder 93
single-stage extrusion 171–2
size, product 89–90
snack foods 10, 108, 161–81
co-extruded snacks 177–80
directly expanded snacks 173–7
formed dough products 166–70
maize and other materials 162, 169–70
potato 162, 166–9
future snack processes 180
half-product (pellet) snacks 170–3
innovations 180
major types of 162–3
physical phenomena related to 164–5
quality aspects 180
soft fillings, co-extrusion with 178–9
soft/floury endosperm 18, 19–20
soft sensors 96–7, 101–3
soluble fibre 115–16
soluble solids 9, 24–5
soy isoflavones 120
soya proteins 7–8
specific capacity 149–50
specific gravity 54
specific heat 54
specific mechanical energy (SME) 53, 92,
97
breakfast cereals 151–2
stacking chips 166, 168–9
starch 151
digestibility 110–12
dispersed-phase filling materials 8, 22
gelatinization 110, 185–8, 191
hydration of starch polymers 164
structure-forming materials based on
7–8, 11–20
cereal sources of starch 15–20
factors affecting performance of
starch 12–13
physical form and composition of
natural starches 13
pregelatinised flours 20
starch-based products 12
starch granules 13–15
composition 14–15
cooking and gelatinization 185–8
physical nature 13–14
stress, shear 185–8, 190
structure-forming materials 7–8, 11–21
based on protein 7–8, 11, 20–1
based on starch 7–8, 11–20
sugars 24–5, 110, 112, 186
supercritical carbon dioxide puffing 110
syrup infused cereals 195
talc (magnesium silicate) 10, 25
temperature 6, 29
control 74–6
field 58–66, 69
measurement 94–5
barrel, die and melt 94
product 95
profile 58–66
texture 89, 180
die texturization 154–6
modification 176–7
texturised vegetable protein (TVP) 6
thermal conductivity 54
thermal modelling 67–73
new approach 69–72
comparison of detailed and reduced
models 71–2
detailed model 69–70
objectives and methods 69
reduced model 70–1
review 67–9
thermal performance see heat transfer
thermal resistance 74–5
thermomechanical cooking 137, 139
breakfast cereals 150–4
thiamine 117
three-dimensional half-product snacks
173
three-inch sticks 194
toasting 158
tocopherols 117
torque 94
tortilla chips 161–2, 169–70
training/education 197–8
transfer area 56
twin-screw extruders 31–2, 42–6
advantages and disadvantages 45–6
applications 43–5
baby foods 192, 196–7
vs single-screw extruders 46–7
two-stage extrusion 171, 172
under-oil cutting technique 195–6
user specification 99–100
Index 205
venturi meter 94
very low shear extrusion 192
viscosity 54, 56–7, 185–8
viscous dissipation 56–7
vitamins 116–18
volume 56–7
volumetric feeders 93–4
water
plasticiser and lubricant 9, 22–3
superheating and release as vapour
164–5, 173
see also moisture content
water absorption index (WAI) 151–2
water-based flavouring 180
water solubility index (WSI) 151–2
weight belt feeders 94
wet single-screw extruders 31–3, 32–6
wheat 16, 17
206 Index