Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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440 • WORLD WAR II

Germany until 10 September 1939, a full week after Great Britain.

Canada mobilized rapidly after the fall of France in June 1940, how-

ever, and sent a number of infantry divisions to the British Isles. Mas-

sive shipbuilding programs were implemented and national resources

were channeled to the war effort.

At the end of 1941, two battalions of Canadian infantry were

dispatched to reinforce the garrison of Hong Kong in order to deter

Japanese aggression. However, when the Japanese struck in De-

cember 1941, British defenses were paralyzed and reinforcements

and supplies could not be sent to the crown colony. After a bloody

struggle, the garrison surrendered and the troops were placed in

Japanese prison camps. Many Canadians died in the Japanese camps,

which did not follow accepted international practices in regard to the

treatment of prisoners.

In August 1942, the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division, together with

British Royal Marine Commandos and American Rangers, raided the

French port of Dieppe. Planning and preparation problems and lack

of air and naval support thrust the Canadians into the teeth of Ger-

man defenses. Only a very few of those who engaged in the assault

returned to England; the rest were either killed on the lines or were

captured and spent the rest of the war in a prison camp. The raid,

though only a small part of the war, had a large impact on Canada.

Over 900 Canadian soldiers were killed and 1,874 taken prisoner out

of the 5,000 who landed.

The Canadian government sent the 1st Canadian Infantry Divi-

sion to the Mediterranean theater for the invasion of Italy. Eventu-

ally, the 5th Armored Division was also sent with a corps head-

quarters. The Italian campaign began with the invasion of Sicily,

also known as Operation Husky. The invasion began on 10 July

1943 when Canadian and British forces landed near Pachino, close

to the southern tip of Sicily. U.S. forces landed nearby. The whole

was one of the remarkable seaborne invasions in history, involv-

ing nearly 3,000 ships and landing craft from Allied forces. Sicily

was taken after four weeks, and the costs were high: there were

1,300 Canadian casualties, almost 600 of which were fatal. The

way was now cleared for landing in Italy proper. Here as before,

Canadian soldiers faced extremely hard conditions and took heavy

losses. Against stiff German resistance, the Allies made a pains-

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WORLD WAR II • 441

taking crawl north over poor roads and through heavy rain. They

faced hard fighting at an ancient town of castles and stone build-

ings called Ortona, Christmas 1943. Here urban warfare involving

vicious street fighting (“mouse holing,” as it was called) was a

feature of eventual victory. Ortona was captured on 28 December

after seven days of fighting.

The next big battle was the Battle in the Liri Valley, with the

ensuing liberation of Rome by the U.S. Army on 4 June 1944. This

opened the way for the smashing of the German defenses in northern

Italy (completed in spring 1945). Over 92,000 Canadians served in

the Italian campaign and took 26,000 casualties, of which 6,000 were

fatal. In February 1945, the 1st Canadian Corps moved northwest to

be reunited with the First Canadian Army and join the Allied move-

ment into the Netherlands and Germany to participate in the conclu-

sion of the war.

In the Normandy campaign, the remaining elements of the First

Canadian Army landed on “Juno” Beach on 6 June 1944. Canadian

formations took part in many of the battles on the Normandy beach-

head, notably the hard-fought battle of Caen, and helped the Allied

armies break out in August. Canadian forces fought along the Chan-

nel coast and liberated much of Belgium and the Netherlands. They

had crossed into German territory by the time of the armistice in May

1945. Over 230,000 Canadians served in Northwest Europe at the

cost of over 11,000 killed.

Canadians also took part in the strategic air offensive over Ger-

many. By the end of the war, 48 Canadian Air Force squadrons

were deployed overseas and one entire Bomber Command group

(No. 6) was made up of Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) squad-

rons. Also, many Canadians flew in Royal Air Force squadrons. The

RCAF managed the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan,

which turned out thousands of aircrew for war service. Over 17,000

Canadians were killed in the skies over Europe out of a total force

of nearly 250,000 men and women. Also, RCAF aircraft took part in

the Battle of the Atlantic and were responsible for the destruction

of 23 U-boats. The Royal Canadian Navy was active in Murmansk

convoys, English Channel work, and convoy protection, among other

duties. Canada’s most famous warship, the HMCS Haida, saw ser-

vice in the North Atlantic, Arctic, and English Channel.

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442 • WRONG, GEORGE

In consequence of the war effort at home and abroad, Canada’s

economy grew by leaps and bounds. In order to fulfill war orders and

contracts, many new factories were built. Thousands of aircraft, ar-

mored vehicles, trucks, and ships were constructed in Canadian fac-

tories to aid the Allied war effort. “War-time housing” and the Vet-

erans Administration (and hospitals) were significant consequences

in Canada. Of the 1 million Canadian service personnel, 45,000 died

in battle, approximately 4.5 percent of all troops.

WRONG, GEORGE (1860–1948). The historian George Wrong was

born in Elgin County, Ontario, educated at the University of To-

ronto, and ordained a priest of the Church of England. He lectured

at Wycliffe College in Toronto and later became a professor and

chair of the Department of History at the University of Toronto. A

founder of the Champlain Society, he was editorial secretary and

later president. In 1897, he founded the Review of Historical Publica-

tions Related to Canada, which became, in 1920, the Canadian His-

torical Review, a pre-eminent journal of Canadian history. He wrote

many works on Canadian history, notably The Rise and Fall of New

France (2 vols., Toronto, 1928). He edited Gabriel Sagard’s Long

Journey to the Country of the Hurons (Champlain Society, 1939), a

classic of Huron history. His son Hume Wrong (1984–1954) became

a noted diplomat, historian, and biographer. See also HISTORICAL

WRITING.

– Y –

YUKON RIVER. The Yukon (from the Gwitch’in word Yu-kun-ah,

meaning “great river”) is the fifth longest river in North America,

with a length of 3,185 kilometers from the head of the Nisnutlin

River to the mouth in Alaska. The Yukon River basin is believed to

be the migration route of America’s original settlers in prehistoric

times. Russian fur traders knew of the river basin by 1831. The up-

per parts of the river were explored by Hudson’s Bay Company

trader Robert Campbell, who established Fort Selkirk on the Yukon

in 1848. At the height on the Klondike gold rush in the late 1890s

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YUKON TERRITORY • 443

and early 1900s, the Yukon River was used as a transportation route

for gold seekers. See also YUKON TERRITORY.

YUKON TERRITORY. The Yukon Territory is located in the north-

west corner of Canada. It is bounded by Alaska on the west, the

Northwest Territories on the east, British Columbia on the south,

and the Arctic Ocean on the north. On the Arctic coast is Herschel

Island, famous in whaling history. The terrain of the Yukon Terri-

tory is rugged and covered with mountains, high plateaus, and fast-

flowing rivers. The Gwitch’in inhabited the land of the Yukon prior

to European contact. In 1847, Alexander Murray Hunter of the Hud-

son’s Bay Company established a fur trading post, Fort Yukon, on

the Yukon River. The Yukon Territory is most noted for the Klon-

dike gold rush that began in early August 1896 when gold was dis-

covered on Bonanza Creek. The influx of gold prospectors led to the

government of Canada establishing the Yukon Territory in 13 June

1898. In 1942, the U.S. Army built the Alaska Highway through the

Yukon. The Canol Pipeline also crossed through it.

The Yukon economy is based on natural resources. Furs and

minerals such as gold, silver, lead, and zinc are the main resources.

Timber suitable for harvest is sparse in these latitudes. Access to

most natural resources is made exceedingly difficult by the wild ter-

rain. The fluctuations of this type of economy have led to periods of

economic hardship, but tourism in the area is rapidly growing, with

over half a million visitors per year.

The territorial capital is Whitehorse. The territory is governed by

an elected 16-member legislative assembly and a federally appointed

commissioner. The assembly has the power to deal with all local mat-

ters, but the signature of the commissioner is required on all legisla-

tion. Federally, the Yukon Territory is represented by one member in

the House of Commons and one senator. The population was 34,157

in 2009. See also CARMACK, GEORGE WASHINGTON; DAW-

SON, YUKON.

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445

Appendix

Governors General, Prime Ministers,

and Colonial Governors of Canada

GOVERNORS GENERAL OF CANADA

(WITH DATE OF APPOINTMENT)

Viscount Monck 1 July 1867

Lord Lisgar 2 February 1869

Earl of Dufferin 25 June 1872

Marquess of Lorne 25 November 1878

Marquess of Lansdowne 23 October 1883

Lord Stanley of Preston 11 June 1888

Earl of Aberdeen 18 September 1893

Earl of Minto 12 November 1898

Earl of Grey 10 December 1904

Field Marshal H.R.H. Duke of Connaught 13 October 1911

Duke of Devonshire 11 November 1916

Lord Byng 11 August 1921

Viscount Willingdon of Ratton 2 October 1926

Earl of Bessborough 4 April 1931

Lord Tweedsmuir of Elsfield 2 November 1935

Earl of Athlone 21 June 1940

Field Marshal Rt. Hon. Viscount

Alexander of Tunis 2 April 1946

Rt. Hon. Charles Vincent Massey 28 February 1952

Maj. Gen. Rt. Hon. Georges-Philéas Vanier 15 September 1959

Rt. Hon. Daniel Roland Michener 17 April 1967

Rt. Hon. Jules Léger 14 January 1974

Rt. Hon. Edward Richard Schreyer 22 January 1979

Rt. Hon. Jeanne Mathilde Sauvé 14 May 1984

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446 • APPENDIX

Rt. Hon. Ramon John Hnatyshyn 29 January 1990

Rt. Hon. Roméo LeBlanc 22 November 1994

Rt. Hon. Adrienne Clarkson 8 September 1999

Rt. Hon. Michaëlle Jean 27 September 2005

Rt. Hon. David Johnston 1 October 2010

PRIME MINISTERS OF CANADA

Sir John A. Macdonald 1 July 1867–5 November 1873

Alexander Mackenzie 7 November 1873–8 October 1878

Sir John A. Macdonald 17 October 1878–6 June 1891

Sir John Abbott 16 June 1891–24 November 1892

Sir John Thompson 5 December 1892–12 December 1894

Sir Mackenzie Bowell 21 December 1894–27 April 1896

Sir Charles Tupper 1 May 1896–8 July 1896

Sir Wilfrid Laurier 11 July 1896–6 October 1911

Sir Robert Borden 10 October 1911–10 July 1920

Arthur Meighen 10 July 1920–29 December 1921

William Lyon Mackenzie King 29 December 1921–28 June 1926

Arthur Meighen 29 June 1926–25 September 1926

William Lyon Mackenzie King 25 September 1926–7 August 1930

Richard Bennett 7 August 1930–23 October 1935

William Lyon Mackenzie King 23 October 1935–15 November 1948

Louis St. Laurent 15 November 1948–21 June 1957

John Diefenbaker 21 June 1957–22 April 1963

Lester B. Pearson 22 April 1963–20 April 1968

Pierre Elliott Trudeau 20 April 1968–4 June 1979

Joe Clark 4 June 1979–3 March 1980

Pierre Elliott Trudeau 3 March 1980–30 June 1984

John Turner 30 June 1984–17 September 1984

Brian Mulroney 17 September 1984–25 June 1993

Kim Campbell 25 June 1993–4 November 1993

Jean Chrétien 4 November 1993–12 December 2003

Paul Martin 12 December 2003–6 February 2006

Stephen Harper 6 February 2006–present

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APPENDIX • 447

COLONIAL GOVERNORS

French Regime

Samuel de Champlain 1612–1629, 1633–1635

Charles de Montmagny 1636–1648

Louis d’Ailleboust de Coulonge 1648–1651

Jean de Lauzon 1651–1656

Vicomte d’Argenson 1658–1661

Baron d’Avaugour 1661–1663

Sieur de Mésy 1663–1665

Sieur de Courcelle 1665–1672

Comte de Frontenac 1672–1682

Joseph-Antoine de LaBarre 1682–1685

Marquis de Denonville 1685–1689

Comte de Frontenac 1689–1698

Hector de Callière 1699–1703

Marquis de Vaudreuil 1703–1725

Marquis de Beauharnois 1726–1747

Comte de La Galissonnière 1747–1749

Marquis de La Jonquière 1749–1752

Marquis Duquesne de Menneville 1752–1755

Marquis de Vaudreuil (Rigaud de Vaudreuil) 1755–1760

British Regime

Jeffrey Amherst 1760–1763

James Murray 1764–1768

Sir Guy Carleton (Lord Dorchester) 1768–1778

Sir Frederick Haldimand 1778–1786

Lord Dorchester 1786–1796

Robert Prescott 1797–1807

Sir James Craig 1807–1811

Sir George Prevost 1812–1815

Sir John Sherbrooke 1816–1818

Duke of Richmond 1818–1819

Earl of Dalhousie 1820–1828

Lord Aylmer 1831–1835

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448 • APPENDIX

Earl of Amherst 1835

Earl of Gosford 1835–1837

Earl of Durham 1838

Sir John Colborne 1839

Lord Sydenham 1839–1841

Sir Charles Bagot 1841–1843

Lord Metcalfe 1843–1845

Earl of Cathcart 1846–1847

Earl of Elgin 1847–1854

Sir Edmund Head 1854–1861

Viscount Monck 1861–1867

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449

CONTENTS

Introduction 450

Reference Works 453

Bibliographies and Guides 453

Encyclopedias and Dictionaries 454

Chronologies 454

Yearbooks 455

Biographical Guides and Biographical Dictionaries 455

Periodicals 455

Historical Atlases 456

Canada: National History 457

General Works 457

Texts and Survey Histories 457

Collected Essays and Approaches 458

Historiography, Historical Literature 459

Intellectual History, Political Thought 459

Pre-Confederation Canada 460

Post-Confederation Canada 461

Constitutional and Governmental Affairs 462

External and Foreign Affairs 463

Military and Naval History 465

Prime Ministers 469

Economic and Business History 470

Industry and Development 472

Provincial and Territorial History 472

Alberta 472

British Columbia 473

Manitoba 474

New Brunswick 475

Bibliography

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