Gibilisco S. Teach Yourself Electricity and Electronics

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Radians

The other method of specifying phase is to divide the cycle into 2π equal parts, where π (pi) is a geo-

metric constant equal to the number of diameters of any circle that can be laid end to end around

the circumference of that circle. This constant is approximately equal to 3.14159. A radian (rad) of

phase is thus equal to about 57.3°. Sometimes, the frequency of an ac wave is measured in radians

per second (rad/s) rather than in hertz. Because there are about 6.28 radians in a complete cycle of

360°, the angular frequency of a wave, in radians per second, is equal to about 6.28 times the fre-

quency in hertz. Radians of phase are used mainly by physicists.

Phase Difference

Even if two ac waves have exactly the same frequency, they can have different effects because they

are out of sync with each other. This is especially true when ac waves are added together to produce

a third, or composite, wave.

If two pure ac sine waves have identical frequencies and identical amplitudes but differ in phase

by 180° (a half cycle), they cancel each other out, and the composite wave is zero; it ceases to exist!

If the two waves are exactly in phase, the composite wave has the same frequency, but twice the am-

plitude, of either signal alone.

If two pure ac sine waves have the same frequency but different amplitudes, and if they differ

in phase by 180°, the composite signal has the same frequency as the originals, and an amplitude

equal to the difference between the two. If two such waves are exactly in phase, the composite has

the same frequency as the originals, and an amplitude equal to the sum of the two.

If two pure ac sine waves have the same frequency but differ in phase by some odd amount such

as 75° or 110°, the resulting signal has the same frequency, but does not have the same waveshape

as either of the original signals. The variety of such cases is infinite.

Household electricity from 117-V wall outlets consists of a 60-Hz sine wave with only one

phase component. But the energy is transmitted over long distances in three phases, each differing

by 120° or one-third of a cycle. This is what is meant by three-phase ac. Each of the three ac waves

carries one-third of the total power in a utility transmission line.

Expressions of Amplitude

Amplitude is also called magnitude, level, strength, or intensity. Depending on the quantity being

measured, the amplitude of an ac wave can be specified in amperes (for current), volts (for voltage),

or watts (for power). In addition to this, there are several different ways in which amplitude can be

expressed.

Instantaneous Amplitude

The instantaneous amplitude of an ac wave is the amplitude at some precise moment, or instant, in

time. This constantly changes. The manner in which it varies depends on the waveform. Instanta-

neous amplitudes are represented by individual points on the wave curves.

Peak Amplitude

The peak (pk) amplitude of an ac wave is the maximum extent, either positive or negative, that the

instantaneous amplitude attains. In many situations, the positive and negative peak amplitudes of

Expressions of Amplitude 151

an ac wave are the same. But sometimes they differ. Figure 9-9 is an example of a wave in which the

positive peak amplitude is the same as the negative peak amplitude. Figure 9-10 is an illustration of

a wave that has different positive and negative peak amplitudes.

Peak-to-Peak Amplitude

The peak-to-peak (pk-pk) amplitude of a wave is the net difference between the positive peak am-

plitude and the negative peak amplitude (Fig. 9-11). The peak-to-peak amplitude is equal to the

positive peak amplitude plus the negative peak amplitude. When the positive and negative

peak amplitudes of an ac wave are equal, the peak-to-peak amplitude is exactly twice the peak

amplitude.

152 Alternating-Current Basics

9-10 A wave with unequal

positive and negative

peak amplitudes.

9-11 Peak-to-peak (pk-pk)

amplitude of a

sine wave.

Root-Mean-Square Amplitude

Often, it is necessary to express the effective amplitude of an ac wave. This is the voltage, current, or

power that a dc source would have to produce in order to have the same general effect as a given ac

wave. When you say a wall outlet provides 117 V, you mean 117 effective volts. This is not the same

as the peak or peak-to-peak voltage.

The most common expression for effective ac intensity is called the root-mean-square (rms) am-

plitude. The terminology reflects the fact that the ac wave is mathematically operated on by taking

the square root of the mean (average) of the square of all its instantaneous amplitudes.

In the case of a perfect ac sine wave, the rms value is equal to 0.707 times the peak value, or

0.354 times the peak-to-peak value. Conversely, the peak value is 1.414 times the rms value, and the

peak-to-peak value is 2.828 times the rms value. The rms amplitude is often specified when talking

about utility ac, radio-frequency (RF) ac, and audio-frequency (AF) ac.

For a perfect square wave, the rms value is the same as the peak value, and half the peak-to-peak

value. For sawtooth and irregular waves, the relationship between the rms value and the peak value

depends on the exact shape of the wave. But the rms value is never greater than the peak value for

any type of ac wave.

Superimposed DC

Sometimes a wave has components of both ac and dc. The simplest example of an ac/dc combina-

tion is illustrated by the connection of a dc voltage source, such as a battery, in series with an ac volt-

age source, like the utility mains. An example is shown in the schematic diagram of Fig. 9-12.

Imagine connecting a 12-V automotive battery in series with the wall outlet. (Do not try this exper-

iment in real life!) When this is done, the ac wave is displaced either positively or negatively by

12 V, depending on the polarity of the battery. This results in a sine wave at the output, but one

peak is 24 V (twice the battery voltage) more than the other.

Any ac wave can have dc components along with it. If the dc component exceeds the peak

value of the ac wave, then fluctuating, or pulsating, dc will result. This would happen, for exam-

ple, if a 200-V dc source were connected in series with the output of a common utility ac outlet,

which has peak voltages of approximately ⫾165 V. Pulsating dc would appear, with an average

value of 200 V but with instantaneous values much higher and lower. The waveshape in this case

is shown in Fig. 9-13.

Expressions of Amplitude 153

9-12 Connection of a dc

source in series with

an ac source.

The Generator

Alternating current can be generated by a rotating coil of wire inside a powerful magnet, as shown

in Fig. 9-14. An ac voltage appears between the ends of the wire coil. The ac voltage that a genera-

tor can produce depends on the strength of the magnet, the number of turns in the wire coil, and

the speed at which the magnet or coil rotates. The ac frequency depends only on the speed of rota-

154 Alternating-Current Basics

9-14 A functional diagram

of an ac generator.

9-13 Waveform resulting

from a 117-V ac

sine-wave source

connected in series

with a +200-V dc

source.

tion. Normally, for utility ac, this speed is 3600 revolutions per minute (rpm), or 60 complete rev-

olutions per second (rps), so the ac output frequency is 60 Hz.

When a load, such as a light bulb or heater, is connected to an ac generator, it becomes more

difficult, mechanically, to turn the generator shaft, compared to when there is nothing connected to

the output. As the amount of electrical power demanded from a generator increases, so does the me-

chanical power required to drive it. This is why it is impossible to connect a generator to a station-

ary bicycle and pedal an entire city into electrification. There’s no way to get something for nothing.

The electrical power that comes out of a generator can never be more than the mechanical power

driving it. In fact, there is always some energy lost, mainly as heat in the generator. Your legs might

generate enough power to run a small radio or television set, but nowhere near enough to provide

electricity for a household.

The efficiency of a generator is the ratio of the electrical power output to the mechanical driv-

ing power, both measured in the same units (such as watts or kilowatts), multiplied by 100 to get a

percentage. No generator is 100 percent efficient, but a good one can come fairly close.

At power plants, generators are driven by massive turbines. The turbines are turned by various

natural sources of energy such as moving water, steam heated by combustion of fossil fuels, or steam

taken directly from deep inside the earth. These energy sources can provide tremendous mechanical

power, and this is why power plants can produce megawatts of electrical power.

Why Alternating and Not Direct?

Do you wonder why ac is used at all? Isn’t it a lot more complicated than dc? Well, ac may be more

complicated in theory, but in practice it is a lot simpler to use when it is necessary to provide elec-

tricity to a large number of people.

Alternating current lends itself well to being transformed to lower or higher voltages, according

to the needs of electrical apparatus. It is not so easy to change dc voltages. Electrochemical cells pro-

duce dc directly, but they are impractical for the needs of large populations. Serving millions of con-

sumers requires the immense power of falling or flowing water, the ocean tides, wind, fossil fuels,

controlled nuclear reactions, or geothermal heat. All of these energy sources can be used to drive tur-

bines that turn ac generators.

Technology is advancing in the realm of solar-electric energy; someday a significant part of our

electricity might come from photovoltaic power plants. These would generate dc. High voltages

could be attained by connecting giant arrays of solar panels in series. But there would be a problem

transforming this voltage down to manageable levels for consumer use.

Thomas Edison is said to have favored dc over ac for electrical power transmission in the early

days, as the electric utilities were first being devised and constructed. His colleagues argued that ac

would work better. But perhaps Edison knew something that his contemporaries did not. There is

one advantage to dc in utility applications, and it involves the transmission of energy over great

distances using wires. Direct currents, at extremely high voltages, are transported more efficiently

than alternating currents. The wire has less effective resistance with dc than with ac, and there is

less energy lost in the magnetic fields around the wires. Direct-current high-tension transmission

lines are being considered for future use. Right now, the main problem is expense. Sophisticated

power-conversion equipment is needed. If the cost can be brought within reason, Edison will be

vindicated.

Why Alternating and Not Direct? 155

Quiz

Refer to the text in this chapter if necessary. A good score is at least 18 correct. Answers are in the

back of the book.

1. Which of the following can vary with ac, but never with dc?

(a) Power

(b) Voltage

(d) Amplitude

2. The length of time between a point in one cycle and the same point in the next cycle of an ac

wave is the

(a) frequency.

(b) magnitude.

(d) polarity.

3. On a spectrum analyzer, an ac signal having only one frequency component looks like

(a) a single pip.

(b) a sine wave.

(d) a sawtooth wave.

4. The period of an ac wave, in seconds, is

(a) the same as the frequency in hertz.

(b) not related to the frequency in any way.

(d) equal to the peak amplitude in volts divided by the frequency in hertz.

5. The sixth harmonic of an ac wave whose period is 1.000 millisecond (1.000 ms) has a

frequency of

(a) 0.006 Hz.

(b) 167.0 Hz.

(d) 6.000 kHz.

6. A degree of phase represents

(a) 6.28 cycles.

(b) 57.3 cycles.

(c)

⁄60 of a cycle.

(d)

⁄360 of a cycle.

156 Alternating-Current Basics

7. Suppose that two ac waves have the same frequency but differ in phase by exactly

⁄20 of a

cycle. What is the phase difference between these two waves?

(a) 18°

(b) 20°

(d) 5.73°

8. Suppose an ac signal has a frequency of 1770 Hz. What is its angular frequency?

(a) 1770 rad/s

(b) 11,120 rad/s

(d) Impossible to determine from the data given

9. A triangular wave exhibits

(a) an instantaneous rise and a defined decay.

(b) a defined rise and an instantaneous decay.

(d) an instantaneous rise and an instantaneous decay.

10. Three-phase ac

(a) has sawtooth waves that add together in phase.

(b) consists of three sine waves in different phases.

(d) is of interest only to physicists.

11. If two perfect sine waves have the same frequency and the same amplitude, but are in

opposite phase, the composite wave

(a) has twice the amplitude of either input wave alone.

(b) has half the amplitude of either input wave alone.

(d) has zero amplitude (that is, it does not exist), because the two input waves cancel each

other out.

12. If two perfect sine waves have the same frequency and the same phase, the composite wave

(a) is a sine wave with an amplitude equal to the difference between the amplitudes of the

two input waves.

(b) is a sine wave with an amplitude equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the two original

waves.

(d) has zero amplitude (that is, it does not exist), because the two input waves cancel each

other out.

Quiz 157

13. In a 117-V rms utility circuit, the positive peak voltage is approximately

(a) +82.7 V.

(b) +165 V.

(d) +331 V.

14. In a 117-V rms utility circuit, the peak-to-peak voltage is approximately

(a) 82.7 V.

(b) 165 V.

(d) 331 V.

15. In a perfect sine wave, the peak-to-peak amplitude is equal to

(a) half the peak amplitude.

(b) the peak amplitude.

(d) twice the peak amplitude.

16. If a 45-V dc battery is connected in series with the 117-V rms utility mains as shown in

Fig. 9-15, the peak voltages will be approximately

(a) +210 V and −120 V.

(b) +162 V and −72 V.

(d) +117 V and −117V.

158 Alternating-Current Basics

9-15 Illustration for Quiz

Question 16.

17. In the situation described in question 16 and illustrated in Fig. 9-15, the peak-to-peak voltage

will be approximately

(a) 117 V.

(b) 210 V.

(d) 396 V.

18. Which one of the following does not affect the power output available from a particular ac

generator?

(a) The strength of the magnet

(b) The number of turns in the coil

(d) The speed of rotation of the coil or magnet

19. If a 175-V dc source were connected in series with the utility mains from a standard wall

outlet, the result would be

(a) smooth dc at a constant voltage.

(b) pure ac with equal peak voltages.

(d) fluctuating dc.

20. An advantage of ac over dc in utility applications is the fact that

(a) ac is easier to transform from one voltage to another.

(b) ac is transmitted with lower loss in wires.

(d) ac can be generated with less-dangerous by-products.

Quiz 159

IN THIS CHAPTER, YOU’LL LEARN ABOUT ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS THAT OPPOSE THE FLOW OF AC BY

temporarily storing energy as magnetic fields. These devices are called inductors, and their action is

known as inductance. Inductors often, but not always, consist of wire coils. Sometimes a length of

wire, or a pair of wires, is used as an inductor.

The Property of Inductance

Suppose you have a wire 1 million miles long (about 1.6 million kilometers). Imagine that you

make this wire into a huge loop, and connect its ends to the terminals of a battery (Fig. 10-1). An

electrical current will flow through the loop of wire, but this is only part of the picture.

If the wire was short, the current would begin to flow immediately, and it would attain a

level limited by the resistance in the wire and in the battery. But because the wire is extremely

long, it takes a while for the electrons from the negative terminal to work their way around the

loop to the positive terminal. It will take a little time for the current to build up to its maximum

level.

160

CHAPTER

Inductance

10-1 A huge, imaginary

loop of wire can be

used to illustrate the

principle of

inductance.