Engerman S.L., Gallman R.E. The Cambridge Economic History of the United States, Vol. 1: The Colonial Era
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Bibliographical Essays 417
ery: A History of
Slavery
in Africa (Cambridge, 1983). On slavery within
Africa, see also Philip D. Curtin,
Economic Change
in
Precolonial
Africa:
Senegambia
in the Era of
the
Slave Track, 2 vols. (Madison, WI, 1975);
Suzanne Miers and Igor
Kopytoff,
eds., Slavery in Africa (Madison, WI,
1977);
John Thornton, "The Slave Trade in Eighteenth Century Angola:
Effects on Demographic Structures," Canadian Journal of African
Studies
14
(1980),
417-27; Philip D. Curtin, "The Abolition of the Slave Trade
from Senegambia," in David Eltis and James Walvin, eds., The
Abolition
of
the
Atlantic
Slave
Trade (Madison, WI, 1981), 83-98; Claire C. Robertson
and Martin A. Klein, eds.,
Women
and Slavery in Africa (Madison, WI,
1983);
and Martin A. Klein, "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on
the Societies of the Western Sudan,"
Social Science History
14 (1990),
231 —
53.
Primary evidence on the slave trade is presented in Elizabeth Donnan,
ed.,
Documents
Illustrative of
the
Slave
Trade
to
America,
4 vols. (Washing-
ton,
D.C., 1930-5).
Recent studies of the operation of the trans-Atlantic slave trade include
Herbert S. Klein, The Middle
Passage;
Comparative Studies
in the Atlantic
Slave Trade (Princeton, NJ, 1978); Henry Gemery and Jan Hogendorn,
eds.,
The
Uncommon
Market: Essays on the
Economic
History of
the
Atlantic
Slave
Trade
(New York, 1978); Colin Palmer, Human
Cargoes:
The British
Slave Trade to Spanish America (Urbana, IL, 1981); James A. Rawley, The
Transatlantic Slave Trade (New York, 1981); and Barbara L. Solow, ed.,
Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic
System
(Cambridge, 1991). On the
economics of the trade, also see Henry A. Gemery and Jan S. Hogendorn,
"The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Tentative Economic Model," Journal of Afri-
can History 15 (1974), 223—46; Richard N. Bean, The British Trans-
Atlantic
Slave
Trade,
1650-1775 (New York, 1975); and Richard N. Bean
and Robert P. Thomas, "The Adoption of Slave Labor in British America,"
in Gemery and Hogendorn, eds., The
Uncommon
Market, 377—98. For the
history of the English slave-trading companies, see George Frederick
Zook,
The Company
of Royal
Adventurers Trading into
Africa (Lancaster, PA,
1919);
K. G. Davies, The Royal African Company (London, 1957); and
David W. Galenson,
Traders,
Planters,
and
Slaves:
Market
Behavior
in Early
English America (Cambridge, 1986). On the demographic composition of
the trade, see David Eltis and Stanley L. Engerman, "Fluctuations in Sex
and Age Ratios in the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 1663—1864,"
Economic
History Review, 26. Ser. 46 (1993), 308-23. On the finance of the slave
trade, see Jacob M. Price, "Credit in the Slave Trade and the Plantation
Economies," in Solow, ed.,
Slavery
and
the Rise
of
the
Atlantic
System,
293-
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
418
Bibliographical Essays
339.
On mortality in the slave trade, among many studies see Philip D.
Curtin, "Epidemiology and the Slave Trade," Political
Science Quarterly
83
(1968),
190-216; Roger T. Anstey, The Atlantic Slave
Trade
and British
Abolition, 1760-1810 (London, 1975); Joseph C. Miller, "Mortality in
the Atlantic Slave Trade: Statistical Evidence on Casuality," Journal of
Interdisciplinary History 11 (1981), 385-423; and Richard B. Sheridan,
Doctors
and
Slaves:
a
Medical
and
Demographic History
of
Slavery
in
the
British
West Indies, 1680-1834 (Cambridge, 1985). For comparative evidence on
the mortality of whites on trans-Atlantic voyages, see Kenneth Morgan,
"The Organization of the Convict Trade to Maryland: Stevenson, Ran-
dolph & Cheston, 1768-1775," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d. Ser., 42
(1985);
and Farley Grubb, "Morbidity and Mortality on the North Atlan-
tic Passage: Eighteenth-Century German Immigration," Journal of Interdis-
ciplinary History 17 (1987), 565-85. The mortality in Africa of English
employees of the Royal African Company is treated by K. G. Davies, "The
Living and the Dead: White Mortality in West Africa, 1684-1732," in
Stanley Engerman and Eugene Genovese, eds., Race and Slavery in the
Western
Hemisphere:
Quantitative Studies
(Princeton, 1975).
For evidence on slavery in particular colonial regions, see Lorenzo John-
ston Greene,
TheNegro
in
Colonial New
England (New York, 1942); Richard
S. Dunn, Sugar and
Slaves:
The Rise of
the
Planter Class in the
English
West
Indies, 1624-1713 (Chapel Hill, 1972); Carl Bridenbaugh and Roberta
Bridenbaugh, No
Peace Beyond the
Line:
The English
in
the
Caribbean,
1624—
1690 (New York, 1972); Gerald W. Mullin, Flight and
Rebellion:
Slave
Resistance
in
Eighteenth-Century
Virginia (London, 1972); Richard B. Sheri-
dan,
Sugar
and
Slavery:
An
Economic History
of
the
British
West
Indies,
1623—
1775 (Barbados, 1974); Peter H. Wood, Black Majority:
Negroes
in Colonial
South
Carolina from 1670
through
the
Stono Rebellion
(New York, 1975); Betty
Wood, Slavery in Colonial
Georgia,
1730—1775 (Athens, GA, 1984); Jean
R. Soderlund, Quakers and Slavery (Princeton, NJ, 1985); and Allan
Kulikoff,
Tobacco
and
Slaves:
the Development
of
Southern Cultures
in
the
Chesa-
peake, 1680—1800 (Chapel Hill, 1986). For treatments of many particular
aspects of slavery, see Randall M. Miller and John David Smith, eds.,
Dictionary of Afro-American
Slavery
(New York, 1988). On the legal develop-
ment of
slavery,
see Winthrop D. Jordan, White
Over
Black:
American
Atti-
tudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968); and A. Leon
Higginbotham, In the Matter of
Color:
Race and the
American Legal
Process,
The
Colonial Period (New
York,
1978). The economics of the growth of slavery in
the Chesapeake is analyzed by Russell R. Menard, "From Servants to Slaves:
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
Bibliographical Essays 419
The Transformation of the Chesapeake Labor System,"
Southern
Studies 16
(
r
977)>
355~9°;
an<
l David W. Galenson, "Economic Aspects of the
Growth of Slavery in the Seventeenth-Century Chesapeake," in Solow, ed.,
Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System, 265-92.
On hired labor in the English colonies, see Percy Wells Bidwell and
John I. Falconer, History of Agriculture in the Northern United States to i860,
(Washington, D.C., 1925); Edmund S. Morgan, The Puritan Family:
Religion and Domestic Relations in Seventeenth-Century New England (Boston,
1944);
Charles S. Grant, Democracy in the Connecticut Frontier Town of Kent
(New York, 1961); John Demos, "Families in Colonial Bristol, Rhode
Island: An Exercise in Historical Demography," 'William and Mary Quar-
terly, 3d. Ser., 25 (1968), 40-57; Philip J. Greven, Four
Generations:
Population,
Land,
and Family in Colonial Andover, Massachusetts (Ithaca, NY,
1970);
John Demos, A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony
(London, 1970); Kenneth A. Lockridge, A New England
Town:
The First
Hundred Years (New York, 1970); Stephen Innes, Labor in a New
Land:
Economy
and
Society
in Seventeenth-Century Springfield (Princeton, NJ, 1983);
Jackson Turner Main, Society and
Economy
in Colonial
Connecticut
(Princeton,
NJ, 1985); Daniel Vickers, "Working the Fields in a Developing Econ-
omy: Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1675," in Stephen Innes, ed.,
Work and Labor in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1988), 49-69; Vickers,
"Merchant Credit and Labour Strategies in the Cod Fishery of Colonial
Massachusetts," in Rosemary E. Ommer, ed., Merchant Credit and
Labour
Strategies
in
Historical Perspective
(Fredericton, New Brunswick, 1990), 36—
48;
and Winifred B. Rothenberg, From Market-Places to a Market
Economy:
The Transformation of Rural Massachusetts, 1750-1850 (Chicago, 1992).
On the evolving legal basis of hired labor, see Christopher Tomlins, Law,
Labor and
Ideology
in the Early Republic (Cambridge, 1993).
For overviews of the colonial labor market, see Richard S. Dunn, "Ser-
vants and Slaves: The Recruitment and Employment of Labor," in Greene
and Pole, eds.,
Colonial
British
America,
157-94; and David W. Galenson,
"Labor Market Behavior in Colonial America: Servitude, Slavery, and Free
Labor," in Galenson, ed., Markets in History:
Economic
Studies of the Past
(Cambridge, 1989), 52—96.
POPULATION GROWTH AND THE LABOR FORCE
Population estimates by region are presented and discussed in McCusker
and Menard, The
Economy
of British
America,
1607-1789; these were con-
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
420
Bibliographical Essays
strutted from earlier works including Evarts B. Greene and Virginia D.
Harrington, American
Population Before
the
Federal Census
of 1790 (New
York, 1932); Stella H. Sutherland,
Population Distribution
in Colonial Amer-
ica (New York, 1936); and Robert V. Wells,
The Population
of
the
British
Colonies
in
America before
1776 (Princeton, NJ, 1975). For estimates of
white immigration, see Henry Gemery, "Emigration from the British Isles
to the New World, 1630-1700: Inferences from Colonial Populations,"
Research
in
Economic History
5 (1980),
170-231;
and Gemery, "European
Emigration to North America, 1700-1820,"
Perspectives
in
American
His-
tory
(1984), 283-342.
Studies of migration to the colonies include Mildred Campbell, "En-
glish Emigration on the Eve of the American Revolution,"
American
His-
torical Review
61 (1955), 1-20; David Hackett Fischer,
Albion's
Seed:
Four
British
Folkways to America
(New York, 1989); Bernard Bailyn,
The Peopling
of
British North America (New York, 1986); Bailyn,
Voyagers
to the
West:
A
Passage
in the
Peopling
of
America
on the Eve of
the Revolution
(New York,
1986);
David Cressy,
Coming
Over: Migration and
Communication between
England and New England in the
Seventeenth
Century (Cambridge, 1987);
Richard Archer, "New England Mosaic: A Demographic Analysis for the
Seventeenth Century,"
William
and
Mary
Quarterly,
3d. Ser., 47 (1990),
477—502; and Ida Altman and James Horn, eds., "To Make
America":
European
Emigration in the Early
Modern Period
(Berkeley, 1991).
The determinants of the population growth in the colonies are analyzed
by
J. Potter, "The Growth of Population in America, 1700-1860," in D.
Glass and D. Eversley, eds.,
Population
in
History
(London, 1965), 631—
88;
Daniel Scott Smith, "The Demographic History of Colonial New
England,"
Journal
of
Economic History
32 (1972), 165-83; LorenaS. Walsh
and Russell R. Menard, "Death in the Chesapeake: Two Life Tables for
Men in Early Colonial Maryland," Maryland
Historical Magazine
69
(1974),
211—27; Russell R. Menard, "The Maryland Slave Population,
1658 to 1730: A Demographic Profile of Blacks in Four Counties," Wil-
liam
and Mary
Quarterly,
3d. Ser., 32 (1975), 29-54; Russell R. Menard,
"Immigrants and Their Increase: The Process of Population Growth in
Early Colonial Maryland," in Aubrey Land, Lois Carr, and Edward
Papenfuse, eds., Law,
Society,
and
Politics
in Early Maryland (Baltimore,
1977),
88—110; Maris Vinovskis, ed.,
Studies
in
American Historical
Demog-
raphy
(New York, 1979); Vinovskis, Fertility
in
Massachusetts
from
the Revolu-
tion to the
Civil
War
(New York, 1981); Darrett B. Rutman and Anita H.
Rutman, A
Place
in
Time:
Middlesex
County,
Virginia, 1650-1750, 2 vols.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
Bibliographical Essays 421
(New York, 1984); Jim Potter, "Demographic Development and Family
Structure," in Greene and Pole, eds., Colonial British America, 123-56;
Daniel S. Levy, "The Life Expectancies of Colonial Maryland Legislators,"
Historical
Methods
20 (1987), 17—28; Levy, "The Economic Demography
of the Colonial South" (unpublished dissertation, University of Chicago,
1991);
and Robert V. Wells, "The Population of England's Colonies in
America: Old English or New Americans?,"
Population
Studies 46 (1992),
85—102.
For comparative evidence on population growth in England, see
E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, The Population History of England,
1541—1871 (Cambridge, MA, 1981).
The economic progress of immigrants to the colonies is studied by
Russell R. Menard, "From Servant to Freeholder: Status Mobility and
Property Accumulation in Seventeenth-Century Maryland," William and
Mary Quarterly, 3d. Ser., 30 (1973), 37—64; and Lois Green Carr and
Menard, "Immigration and Opportunity: The Freedman in Early Colonial
Maryland," in Thad Tate and David Ammerman, eds., The
Chesapeake
in
the
Seventeenth
Century (New York, 1979), 206-42.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
The authoritative study of wealth in the late colonial period is Alice
Hanson Jones, Wealth of a Nation
To
Be: The
American Colonies
on the Eve of
the Revolution (New York, 1980); supporting evidence is provided in
Jones,
American Colonial Wealth:
Documents
and
Methods,
3 vols., rev. ed.
(New York, 1978). Wealth in Maryland in 1700 is estimated by Gloria
L. Main,
Tobacco
Colony:
Life in Early Maryland, 1650-1720 (Princeton,
NJ, 1982). For additional colonial wealth estimates, see Dunn, Sugar
and
Slaves;
Russell R. Menard, P. M. G. Harris, and Lois Green Carr,
"Opportunity and Inequality: The Distribution of Wealth on the Lower
Western Shore of Maryland, 1638-1705," Maryland Historical Magazine
69 (1974), 169-184; and Gloria Main, "Personal Wealth in Colonial
America: Explorations in the Use of Probate Records from Maryland and
Massachusetts, 1650—1720," (unpublished dissertation, Columbia Uni-
versity, 1972). Comparative estimates for England can be found in C. H.
Feinstein, "Capital Formation in Great Britain," in Peter Mathias and
M. M. Postan, eds., Cambridge
Economic
History of
Europe,
vol. 7 (Cam-
bridge, 1978), 28-96.
For discussions of agricultural productivity change in the early Chesa-
peake, see Lorena S. Walsh, "Plantation Management in the Chesapeake,
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
422 Bibliographical Essays
1620—1820," Journal of
Economic History
49 (1989), 393-406; Lois Green
Carr and Russell R. Menard, "Land, Labor and Economies of Scale in Early
Maryland: Some Limits to Growth in the Chesapeake System of Hus-
bandry, "Journal of
Economic
History, 49 (1989), 407-18; and Lois Green
Carr, Russell R. Menard, and Lorena
S.
Walsh,
Robert Cole's
World:
Agricul-
ture and
Society
in Early Maryland(Chapel Hill, 1991).
On the heights of colonial soldiers and implications for the standard of
living, see Kenneth Sokoloff and Georgia Villaflor, "The Early Achieve-
ment of Modern Stature in America,"
Social Science History
6 (1982), 453-
81;
for English comparisons, see Roderick Floud, Kenneth Wachter, and
Annabel Gregory, Height, Health and History; Nutritional Status in the
United
Kingdom,
1750—1980 (Cambridge, 1990). On the material stan-
dard of living in the early Chesapeake, see Lois Green Carr, "Emigration
and the Standard of
Living:
the Seventeenth Century Chesapeake,
"Journal
of
Economic
History, 52 (1992),
271—91.
Studies of literacy rates in England and the colonies include R. S.
Schofield, "Dimensions of Illiteracy, 1750—1850,"
Explorations
in
Economic
History 10 (1973), 437—54; Kenneth A. Lockridge, Literacy in Colonial
New England (New York, 1974); David W. Galenson, "Literacy and the
Social Origins of Some Early Americans,"
Historical Journal
22 (1979),
75-91;
David Cressy,
Literacy
and
the Social
Order:
Reading
and Writing in
Tudor
and Stuart England (Cambridge, 1980); David W. Galenson, "Liter-
acy and Age in Preindustrial England: Quantitative Evidence and Implica-
tions,"
Economic Development
and Cultural
Change
29 (1981), 813—29; Lee
Sol tow and Edward Stevens, The
Rise
of
Literacy
and
the Common School
in
the
United States
(Chicago, 1981); Robert E. Gallman, "Two Problems in the
Measurement of American Colonial Signature-Mark Literacy," Historical
Methods 20 (1987),
137—41;
and Gallman, "Changes in the Level of.
Literacy in a New Community of Early America," Journal of
Economic
History 48 (1988), 567-82.
For comparisons of wealth across colonies and discussion, see Jackson
Turner Main, The Social
Structure
of
Revolutionary America
(Princeton, NJ,
1965);
S. L. Engerman, "Notes on the Patterns of Economic Growth in
the British North American Colonies in the Seventeenth, Eighteenth,
and Nineteenth Centuries," in Paul Bairoch and Maurice Levy-Leboyer,
eds.,
Disparities in
Economic Development Since
the Industrial
Revolution
(Lon-
don, 1981), 46-57; Jacob M. Price, "The Transatlantic Economy," in
Greene and Pole, eds., Colonial British America, 18-42; Richard B.
Sheridan, "The Domestic Economy," in ibid., 43—85; and Jackson Tur-
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
Bibliographical Essays 423
ner Main, Society and Economy in Colonial Connecticut (Princeton, NJ,
1985).
On the measurement and analysis of economic inequality in the
mainland colonies over time, see Jeffrey G. Williamson and Peter H.
Lindert, "Long-Term Trends in American Wealth Inequality," in James
D.
Smith, ed., Modeling the Distribution and Intergenerational Transmission
of Wealth (Chicago, 1980), 9-93.
On colonial trade, see Elizabeth Boody Schumpeter, English
Overseas
Trade Statistics, 1697-1S08 (Oxford, i960); Bernard Bailyn, The New
England Merchants in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, MA, 1955);
Ralph Davis, The Rise of the English Shipping Industry in the
Seventeenth
and
Eighteenth Centuries
(London, 1962); James F. Shepherdand Gary M. Wal-
ton, Shipping, Maritime Trade, and the
Economic
Development of Colonial North
America (Cambridge, 1972); Jacob M. Price, Capital and Credit in British
Overseas
Trade: The View from the Chesapeake, 1700-1-776 (Cambridge, MA,
1980);
and Price, Perry of London: A Family and a Firm on the Seaborne
Frontier, 1615-1753 (Cambridge, MA, 1992). For colonial exchange
rates,
see John J. McCusker, Money and Exchange in Europe and America,
1600-1775: A Handbook (Chapel Hill, 1978).
CHAPTER 5 (VICKERS)
The social and economic history of the northern colonies is best approached
through the appropriate chapters in two comprehensive and superbly refer-
enced studies: John J. McCusker and Russell R. Menard, The
Economy
of
British America, 1607-1789 (Chapel Hill, 1985); and Jack P. Greene,
Pursuits of Happiness: The Social Development of Early Modern British Colonies
and the Formation of American Culture (Chapel Hill, 1988). The former
contains an excellent bibliography that is particularly strong in older stud-
ies and published primary sources. These two studies may be supplemented
by Frank Freidel, ed., Harvard Guide to American History, 2 vols. (Cam-
bridge, MA, 1974), which is extensive although dated. The core periodical
in the field is the William and Mary Quarterly, 3d Ser. (1944- ), which
contains many seminal articles and which reviews virtually all of the impor-
tant published work on the American colonies
—
North and South. Much
useful material also appears in regional historical journals, especially
Acadiensis, the New England Quarterly, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and
Biography, Essex Institute, Historical Collections, and New York History.
The history of settlement and the transfer of European culture to New
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
424 Bibliographical Essays
England and the middle colonies is the subject of David Hackett Fischer,
Albion's
Seed:
Four
British
Folkways
in
America
(New York, 1989), a compre-
hensive and stimulating, if sometimes eccentric, overview. The regional
literature is strongest on New England: see especially David G. Allen, In
English Ways: The
Movement
of
Societies
and
the Transfer
of English
Local
Law
and Custom to
Massachusetts
Bay in the
Seventeenth
Century (Chapel Hill,
1981);
and Virginia Dejohn Anderson, New England's
Generation:
The
Great Migration and the
Formation
of
Society
and Culture in the
Seventeenth
Century (Cambridge, 1991). The middle colonies are less well-served, but
see the excellent studies by Ned Landsman,
Scotland
and its First
American
Colony,
1683—IJ6$
(Princeton, NJ, 1985) on East Jersey; Barry Levy,
Quakers and the American Family:
Settlement
in the Delaware Valley (New
York, 1988) on the Welsh Tract in Pennsylvania; and Oliver A. Rink,
Holland
on
the Hudson: An
Economic
and
Social
History of
Dutch
New York
(Ithaca, NY, 1986) on the Hudson Valley. The settlement of the colonial
North is best followed into the eighteenth century in Bernard Bailyn, The
Peopling
of British North
America:
An
Introduction
(New York, 1986); and
Voyagers
to the West: A
Passage
in the
Peopling
of
America
on the Eve of
the
Revolution
(New York, 1986).
Studies of the northern frontier do not usefully fall into discrete fields of
history, and this probably constitutes their advantage. Since shared as-
sumptions amongst the many Indian and European groups that dealt with
one another along the frontier were few in number, culture there had to be
the product of continuous negotiation; this has forced those who study the
frontier into treatments that cross the borders between economic, social,
political, and military history. The most sophisticated treatment of this
theme is Richard White,
The
Middle
Ground:
Indians,
Empires,
and
Repub-
lics in the Great Lakes
Region,
1650-1815 (Cambridge, 1991). In the
Atlantic Canadian context, one can still begin with Alfred G. Bailey, The
Conflict
of
European
and
Eastern
Algonkian
Cultures
(St. John, N.B., 1937);
the controversial study by Calvin Martin,
Keepers
of the Game: Indian-
Animal Relationships and the Fur Trade (Berkeley, CA, 1978); Shepard
Krech III, Indians, Animals and the Fur
Trade:
A Critique of
Keepers
of
the
Game (Athens, GA, 1981); and a review of subsequent literature by Ralph
T. Pastore, "Native History in the Atlantic Region During the Colonial
Period," Acadiensis XX (1990), 200-25. For New England, there are
some older studies: Francis X. Moloney, The Fur Trade in New
England,
1620-1676 (Cambridge, MA, 1931); Douglas Edward Leach, The North-
ern Colonial Frontier, 1607-1763 (New York, 1966); and Alden T.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
Bibliographical Essays 425
Vaughan, The New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 1620—1675
(Boston, MA, 1965). But these have largely been supplanted by Francis
Jennings, The Invasion of
America:
Indians,
Colonists,
and the Cant of
Con-
quest (Chapel Hill, 1975); William Cronon,
Changes
in the
Land:
Indians,
Colonists,
and
the Ecology
of New England (New York, 1983); and Peter A.
Thomas, "Cultural Change on the Southern New England Frontier,
1630—1665,"
in William W. Fitzhugh, ed.,
Cultures
in
Conflict:
the Euro-
pean Impact on Native Cultural Institutions in
Eastern
North America, 1000-
1800 (Washington, D.C., 1985), 131-62. On the Middle Colonies, see
Thomas Eliot Norton, The Fur Trade in Colonial New York, 1686-1776
(Madison, WI, 1974); and especially two works by Francis Jennings: The
Ambiguous Iroquois
Empire:
The
Covenant
Chain
Confederation
of Indian
Tribes
with English Colonists from its
beginnings
to the
Lancaster Treaty
of 1744 (New
York, 1984); and
Empire
of
Fortune:
Crowns,
Colonies,
and
the Seven Years
War
in America (New York, 1988). For the way in which Europeans operated
within the frontier zone, there is much suggestive material in George W.
Franz,
Paxton:
A Study of
Community Structure
and Mobility in the Colonial
Pennsylvania
Backcountry
(New York, 1989); Bailyn's
Voyagers
to the West,
especially the chapters on Nova Scotia and New York; and the early
chapters of both Thomas P. Slaughter, The Whiskey Rebellion: Frontier
Epilogue
to the American Revolution (New York, 1986); and Alan Taylor,
Liberty Men and Great
Proprietors:
The
Revolutionary Settlement
on the Maine
Frontier, 1760-1820 (Chapel Hill, 1990).
The best single overview of rural economy in the northern colonies
remains Percy Wells Bidwell and John I. Falconer, History of Agriculture in
the Northern United States, 1620-1860 (Washington, D.C., 1925), al-
though New England has more recently received two rather different
synthetic treatments in Howard S. Russell, A Long, Deep Furrow: Three
Centuries
of Farming in New England (Hanover, NH, 1976), parts 1 and 2;
and Carolyn Merchant,
Ecological
Revolutions:
Nature,
Gender,
and
Science
in
New England (Chapel Hill, 1989). Beyond these, the reader is best advised
to investigate the immense regional and local literature produced by the
"new social" and "new economic" historians of the past 30 years.
On Pennsylvania, see James T. Lemon, The Best
Poor
Man's Country: A
Geographical Study of Early Southeastern Pennsylvania (Baltimore, MD,
1972);
Duane E. Ball and Gary M. Walton, "Agricultural Productivity
Change in Eighteenth-Century Pennsylvania, "Journal of
Economic
History
36 (1976), 102-17; and "Discussion" by Russell M. Menard in ibid.,
118-25;
Lucy Simler, "Tenancy in Colonial Pennsylvania: The Case of
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
426 Bibliographical Essays
Chester County," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d Ser., XLIII (1986),
542—69;
Paul G. E. Clemens and Lucy Simler, "Rural Labor and the Farm
Household in Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1750-1820," in Stephen
Innes,
ed.,
Work
and
Labor
in Early
America
(Chapel Hill, 1988), 106-43;
Joan M. Jensen,
Loosening
the Bonds: Mid-Atlantic Farm
Women,
1750-
1850 (New Haven, CT, 1986); as well as Levy,
Quakers
and
the American
Family. Historians have tended to ignore New Jersey, but see John E.
Pomfret, The New
Jersey Proprietors
and
their
Lands,
1664—1776 (Princeton,
NJ, 1964); Peter O. Wacker, Land and
People:
A Cultural
Geography
of
Preindustrial New
Jersey:
Origins
and
Settlement Patterns
(New Brunswick,
NJ, 1975); as well as Landsman,
Scotland
in
America.
The rural history of
colonial New York is dominated by discussions of its manorial system, and
on this topic, Sung Bok Kim,
Landlord
and
Tenant
in
Colonial
New
York:
Manorial
Society,
1664-1775 (Chapel Hill, 1978), is now authoritative.
The literature on the New England town used to slight questions of
political economy, but this is no longer the case. John Frederick Martin,
Profits
in the
Wilderness:
Entrepreneurship
and the
Founding
of
New
England
Towns
in
the Seventeenth Century
(Chapel Hill, 1991), is one fine recent study
that reflects this recent trend to reconceptualize the New England experi-
ence in precisely these terms. Some important regional studies that focus on
the question of growth are Terry
L.
Anderson, "Economic Growth in Colo-
nial New England: "Statistical Renaissance,"Journal
ofEconomic
History,
39
(1979),
243—57; Bruce C. Daniels, "Economic Development in Colonial
and Revolutionary Connecticut: An Overview" William and Mary
Quarterly,
3d Ser., 37 (1980), 429—50; and Gloria L. Main and Jackson T. Main,
"Economic Growth and the Standard of Living in Southern New England,
1640—1774," Journal of
Economic
History, 48 (1988), 27—46. On social
structure, Jackson Turner Main,
Society
and
Economy
in
Colonial Connecticut
(Princeton, NJ, 1985), contains much useful information; and on geo-
graphic mobility, see Fred Anderson, "A People's Army: Provincial Mili-
tary Service in Massachusetts During the Seven Years' War," William and
Mary Quarterly, 3d Ser., 40 (1983), 499-527; and Douglas Lamar Jones,
"The Strolling Poor: Transiency in Eighteenth-Century Massachusetts,"
Journal of
Social
History,
8 (1975), 28-54. The role of women and of gender
relations within the rural economy needs further study, but for two contrast-
ing perspectives, see Laurel Thatcher Ulrich,
Good
Wives:
Image
and Reality
in the Lives of
Women
in
Northern
New
England,
1650-1750 (New York,
1980),
especially part 1; and Carol Karlsen, The Devil in the
Shape
of a
Woman:
Witchcraft
in
Colonial New England
(New York, 1987). The impor-
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