Daniell C. Death and Burial in Medieval England, 1066-1550

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DEATH AND BURIAL IN MEDIEVAL

ENGLAND

DEATH AND BURIAL

IN MEDIEVAL

ENGLAND 1066–1550

Christopher Daniell

London and New York

To my parents, David and Dorothy, and my

brother

Andy—who all live life to the full.

First published 1997

by Routledge

11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge

29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

First published in paperback 1998

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s

collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic,

mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter

invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any

information storage or retrieval system, without permission in

writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

Daniell, Christopher.

Death and burial in medieval England, 1066–1550/Christopher Daniell.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Funeral rites and ceremonies–England. 2. Human remains

(Archaeology)–England. 3. England–Social life and

customs–1066–1485. 4. England-Antiquities. I. Title.

GT3243.D36.1996 1996

393′.0942′0902–dc20

96–7552

ISBN 0-203-97917-6 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-415-11629-5 (hbk)

ISBN 0-415-18550-5 (pbk)

CONTENTS

List of Plates vi

Preface vii

1 DEATH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 1

2 FROM DEATH-BED TO REMEMBRANCE 27

3 THEMES OF DEATH 59

4 THE GEOGRAPHY OF BURIAL 79

5 THE BODILY EVIDENCE 107

6 CEMETERIES AND GRAVE GOODS 145

7 DEATH FROM THE CONQUEST TO THE

REFORMATION

173

Appendix 1 Jews and Lepers 199

Appendix 2 The Living 203

Bibliography 207

Subject Index 231

Index of People and Places 239

PLATES

The plate section is between pages 144 and 145.

1 Crucified Christ, West Tanfield, North Yorkshire

2 Chantry chapel, Holy Trinity, Goodramgate, York

3 Detail of angel from the Marmion tomb, West Tanfield, North

Yorkshire

4 The Marmion tomb and hearse, West Tanfield, North Yorkshire

5 Group of skeletons, showing the compact nature of Christian

churchyard burial, St Helen-on-the-Walls, York

6 Skeleton of a woman, St Helen-on-the-Walls, York

7 Charnel pit, St Helen-on-the-Walls, York

8 Burial of a woman with child of about nine months, St Helen-on-

the-Walls, York

9 Decapitated man, buried with large cobbles cradling the skull, St

Andrew’s Priory, Fishergate, York

10 Skeleton of a man, buried in a cist coffin, St Andrew’s Priory,

Fishergate, York

11 The Archangel Michael weighing souls, West Tanfield, North

Yorkshire

12 Detail of head, showing chain mail and double ‘S’ collar of the

Lancastrians, West Tanfield, North Yorkshire

13 Tomb stone with cauldron and fish (salamander?) design, Holy

Trinity, Goodramgate, York

PREFACE

This book developed out of the need for a general work about death and

burial in England within the Middle Ages. (The Middle Ages are defined

in this work as 1066–1550.) There are excellent studies on individual

aspects—religious beliefs, cemeteries, literature—but they often have

little correspondence with other areas of study. Death and burial are,

uniquely, not only interdisciplinary, but also applicable and relevant to

the entire medieval population. Whilst it is true that the best

documentary records survive for the richest and most powerful; the

ordinary, undocumented people are discovered in archaeological

excavations. It is through interdisciplinary study that new strands become

evident, especially when archaeological discoveries are supported by

explanatory historical texts.

As well as a description of the processes involved, a theoretical

framework is here suggested. This is based on the idea that beliefs in the

afterlife are the predominant force in the rituals connected with death

and burial. As beliefs change, so do the practices. This is, of course,

contentious. Even in well-documented periods, the aspects which are

religiously inspired, and those which are socially important, are often

difficult to disentangle. A funeral procession with torches and pall-

bearers may be a social statement of the deceased’s power to some; and

to others a way of helping the soul through Purgatory. Similarly it can

be difficult to determine the impact of different themes upon death and

burial rituals, whether the teaching of the Church, urbanisation, or

preChristian beliefs.

The uniqueness of the Middle Ages is that for the first time historical,

archaeological and literary sources are all abundant, although the ratio of

importance changes during the course of the 500 years. At the beginning

of the period, in the eleventh century, most information comes from

archaeological excavations, although excellent accounts of individual

burials and funerals are given by some chroniclers. (William of

Malmesbury has been predominantly used in this work, though Gerald of

Wales and Reginald of Durham are two of many other chroniclers who

could have been cited.) The chroniclers were, however, a small group of

men, whereas the archaeologically excavated bodies run into thousands

of men, women and children. By the end of the Middle Ages the ratio is

reversed. By the mid-thirteenth century the distinctive archaeological

practices of charcoal burials and pillow stones had been abandoned, and

burials were almost entirely uniform in appearance. Skeletons still give

important evidence about disease, but reveal less about funerals, burial

practices and beliefs. Whereas archaeology decreases in importance,

historical documents detailing funerals rapidly increase. Surviving wills

are the most numerous historical source for individual beliefs and

practices concerning death and burial. Tens of thousands of wills survive

from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which give the viewpoint and

beliefs of individual people or communities. For the first time a large-

scale view of individual piety and beliefs can be analysed. For 500 years

we have a combination of excellent historical, archaeological and literary

evidence for the religious views of the time. This combination allows

theories to be tested in a way undreamt of for earlier periods.

Three themes have not been explored in detail. First is the continental

development of death and burial practices. There is excellent material

from individual countries, especially France and Italy (Ariès 1974, 1987;

Volvelle 1976, 1983; Banker 1988; Strocchia 1992), but examples show

that local customs could be very different to English practice: cadaver

tombs, very popular in the rest of Europe, were rare in England.

Similarly, charcoal burials were an essentially English method of burial.

The second theme is anthropology. Third is monumental brass and tomb

development. These have been excellently researched and written up

(Coales 1987; Colvin 1991; Binski 1996), and any assessment would

have expanded the book beyond its means.

Finally, it is my great pleasure to express my gratitude to all those

people who have helped in the making of this book. Thanks are due to

Richard Briggs, Jef Maytom and Dominic Tweddle for their patience

while work was in progress, and to the numerous readers of chapters:

Don Brothwell, Clive Burgess, David Crouch, David J.F.Crouch,

Vanessa Harding, Charles Kightly, Terry and Sonia O’Connor, Philip

Rahtz, Ann Rycraft, Danae Tankard, Victoria Thompson and Lorna

Watts. I am especially indebted to my father, David Daniell, who

lovingly read and commented in detail on every chapter, and to Dorothy

and Andy, my mother and brother, and Marilyn Campbell for all their

constant help and support.

viii

Chris Daniell

York Archaeological Trust