Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics (2nd edition)
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98 Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics
she chooses the progressive aspect. All these grounding elements are layered
around the event schema like the layers of an onion around its core according
to the principle of conceptual distance or proximity, and together form the
sentence (onion).
4.6
Further reading
The introduction to (English) grammar closest to this presentation and
developing its elements in further detail is Radden and Dirven (2005). Other
introductions to syntax, from a cognitive-functional viewpoint are Givón
(1993) and Haiman ed. (1985). The theoretical foundation of the present approach
is offered by Langacker (1987, 1991a, 1991b, 1999). A detailed analysis of one
particular event schema and the predicate “give” is Newman (1996). An analysis
of grammatical morphemes such as the Dative or the Instrumental is Janda
(1993). A construction approach to ditransitives is Goldberg (1995, 2002). The
Goal-over-Source principle has been described by Ikegami (1987). A thorough
and many-faceted analysis of ‘grounding’ is offered in Brisard, ed. (2002). An
overall semantic approach to grammar is Wierzbicka (1988).
Assignments
1. Analyze the described events as follows: (i) Is there an energy flow? If so, from where
to where? (ii) What are the semantic roles of the participants? (iii) Which event
schema is used?
a. Dad must fix the telephone.
b. It fell down last night.
c. My brother is a doctor.
d. He goes to Great Britain.
e. He has given me all his books.
f. He will take a few books to Britain.
g. He watches a lot of television.
2. Which type of Essive relation do you find in each of the following sentences?
a. She is a year older than her brother.
b. She is my niece.
c. A mule is not a horse and not a donkey.
Chapter 4.Putting concepts together 99
d. This puppet is my favourite one.
e. My friend is not at home.
f. There are many problems left.
3. Characterize the subtype of “doing” schema in the following examples. Or is it not
really a “doing” schema?
a. He was tickling his brother.
b. The brother was laughing.
c. He was drawing a train on the blackboard.
d. Then he wiped o¬ the train.
e. He put water on the blackboard.
f. Then he dried it.
4. Characterize the subtypes of possession in the following examples.
a. Have you any good red wine left?
b. I haven’t the slightest idea.
c. That wine bottle has a pretty label.
d. Would you like to have a glass of wine?
e. No, I have got a terrible headache.
f. Well, if you want one, I have got an aspirin here.
5. Analyze the following sentences as in assigment 1. Then comment on the (subtle)
meaning di¬erences between each pair.
a. He will read from the Bible.
b. He will read the Bible.
c. The children washed in the bath.
d. The children washed the bath.
6. Below the sentences from example (8) are repeated. Which of the elements indicated
in parentheses can occur alone and which cannot? Is there evidence for any general
principle(s) like Goal over Source, Source over Goal, or Path over Goal.
a. The apple fell from the tree into the grass.
(Source + Goal)
b. I climbed from my room up the ladder onto the roof.
(Source + Path + Goal)
c. It went on from ten all night long till two.
(Start + Duration + End)
d. The police searched the house from noon till midnight.
(Start + End)
e. The weather changed from cloudy to bright in one hour.
(Initial State + Resultant State + Duration)
100 Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics
f. She changed from an admirer into his adversary.
(Initial State + Resultant State)
7. What are (i) the event schemas, and (ii) the sentence patterns of the sentences below
(repeated from examples (2))?
a. Kim is the one who did it.
b. The window broke.
c. Kim broke the window.
d. Kim felt very angry and tried to hit Bruce.
e. Kim had a baseball bat in his hand.
f. The baseball bat went through the window.
g. Bruce had given Kim a nasty picture of himself.
8. The following pairs of phrases and sentences have di¬erent grounding elements. For
each pair indicate (i) which grammatical verb morphemes are grounding elements,
(ii) which one of the phrases or sentences is an unmarked case (if there is one), (iii)
which one(s) is/are marked. (iv) Explain the semantic di¬erence between each pair.
a. Mum, answer the phone now!/Mum answers the phone often.
b. Mum must answer/may answer the phone now.
c. Mum answered/has answered the phone.
d. Mum has answered/had answered the phone.
e. Mum is answering/answers the phone.
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The sounds of language
Phonetics and Phonology
5.0 Overview
In the preceding chapters we have talked about meaningful units in language:
syntactic groups consist of words, which in turn consist of morphemes. Each is
meaningful at its own level. In this chapter, we will look at the parts that make
up morphemes: speech sounds. A separate speech sound on its own does not
have meaning, but when combined with other sounds, a small distinction such
as it vs. fit may make a meaningful difference.
This chapter describes speech sounds in their general, physical appearance
and in their functioning in one specific language, i.e. English. This difference
constitutes the basis of the two sciences of speech sounds, i.e. phonetics and
phonology.
First the speech organs and the main types of speech sounds are analyzed
and the ways to describe them are discussed. These speech sounds are the
consonants, vowels and diphthongs. In the sound system of a particular
language, things may be different from another language: what counts as two
different sounds in one language, may just be two variants of one element in the
sound system of the other language. Therefore a distinction between a sound
and a phoneme is introduced as well as a distinction between a phonetic
description and a phonemic one.
Groupings of sounds form a syllable and such groupings are again subject
to highly language-specific combination patterns. Syllables form words, which
are characterized by their own stress patterns. Words are combined in a sentence,
which carries one of the various intonation patterns possible in a language. In the
longer units of word groups or sentences, the sounds of single words undergo
massive changes such as linking, elision, assimilation etc. All these processes
enable a quick and efficient delivery of speech production and transmission.
102 Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics
5.1 Introduction: Phonetics and phonology
Human beings can make an infinite number of speech sounds. If you say the
same word several times, or ask different people to say the same word, there will
be differences between the pronunciations. In spite of these differences, we
would still want to say that the pronunciations are in some important respects
“the same”.
The same holds with the written language. The following symbols all have
a different shape. Nevertheless, we are able to regard the different shapes as
examples of the “same” entity, i.e. the “first letter of the alphabet”.
A very general cognitive ability is involved here: categorization, i.e. the ability to
perceive different things as examples of the same category. One aspect of knowing
a language is the ability to categorize the great variety of speech sounds heard in
that language. The sound categories that a speaker of one language recognizes
will not necessarily coincide with those that a speaker of another language will
“hear”. Speakers of Thai hear the two “p”-sounds in pie and spy as different;
conversely, for the Japanese, the “s” and “sh” sounds in sushi are the same.
Here we have the basis of the distinction between phonetics and phonology.
Phonetics studies speech sounds as sounds, in all their complexity and diversity,
independent of their role in a given language. Phonology studies speech sounds
as these are categorized by speakers of a given language. In standard British
English, there are about 45 different categories of speech sounds, called pho-
nemes. As the languages of the world go, English is about average. Some
languages have fewer phonemes (Japanese has about 20). Others, e.g. !Xóõ, one
of the Bushman (“Khoisan”) languages of Southern Africa, have over a hun-
dred, amongst which a very intricate system of click sounds [!].
5.1.1
Spelling and pronunciation
Some languages (e.g. Spanish) have a writing system that is (almost) a phone-
mic one, i.e. each phoneme is always represented by the same letter, and vice
versa. But in English the relationship between pronunciation and spelling is, as
we all know, far from perfect. There are various reasons for this. First there are
more phonemes (about 45) than there are letters of the alphabet (26). Next,
there are historical reasons: when English spelling was standardized, many
Chapter 5.The sounds of language 103
centuries ago, it was broadly phonemic in character. Spelling has remained
virtually the same, while pronunciation has changed considerably over the
centuries, and continues to do so. The vowels of English have been especially
“unstable”. Moreover, English has borrowed from other languages. Words of
foreign origin may be spelt according to the rules of the donor language,
thereby introducing numerous “irregularities” into English spelling. Examples
include French borrowings like rouge, chateau, champaign, quiche. Furthermore,
spellings have sometimes been influenced by speakers’ beliefs about etymology
(etymological spelling). Debt is a borrowing from Old French dette. The “b”
was never pronounced, but was inserted to show the supposed relation of the
word to Latin debitum. Finally, there is a very marked tendency for a given
morpheme always to be spelled the same way, even though its pronunciation
may vary from context to context. The is spelled the same way in the man and
the apple, although it is pronounced differently. You can recognize the invariant
spelling of the root morphemes in photograph and photographer, clean and
cleanse, sign and signature, family and familiar, even though the morphemes are
pronounced differently in each case.
Speakers sometimes attempt to re-establish the link between spelling and
pronunciation, not by changing the spelling, but by modifying the pronuncia-
tion. At the beginning of this century, waistcoat was pronounced /ÁweskIt/ or
/Áwesk6t/, to rhyme with biscuit. The current pronunciation /ÁweistÀk6ut/ is a
spelling pronunciation; the pronunciation is based on the conventional
spelling. Speakers who pronounce the “t” in often are likewise being influenced
by the spelling.
5.1.2
Phonetic symbols
Because spelling is not a faithful representation of pronunciation, it is useful to
have a set of special symbols whose values are generally agreed upon. This is the
function of the phonetic symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA). These symbols are in general use amongst linguists and are employed in
this book. Most modern dictionaries now give pronunciations of words using
these symbols.
5.2
Production of speech sounds
We can distinguish two main stages in the production of speech sounds:
phonation and articulation.
104 Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics
– Phonation stands for the airstream becoming voiced or voiceless as ex-
plained further on (Figure 1). As air is expelled from the lungs, it passes
through the glottis (located behind the “Adam’s apple”). Located in the
glottis are the vocal folds — two flaps of flesh that can be brought together
or held apart. Phonation refers to the modulation of the airstream in the
glottis. If the vocal folds are brought together, they may vibrate, to produce
voice. If air passes freely through the glottis, the air stream is minimally
affected (this is the state of voicelessness).
– Articulation refers to the creation of a special resonance space for each
sound (Figure 2). This involves the shaping of the vocal tract (i.e. the
tubular structure above the larynx), by adjustment, in the oral cavity, of the
tongue, jaw, velum (soft palate), lips, etc. The great variety of speech sounds
that we are able to make depends very largely on the manner in which we
shape the vocal tract.
Phonation and articulation will be discussed in more detail below.
5.2.1
Phonation
If you clasp your hand tightly over your larynx while saying the word zoo,you
should be able to feel a certain vibration. The vibration is that of the vocal folds,
technically known as voice. Both [z] and [u] are voiced sounds.
If you repeat this exercise while saying a prolonged [s], you should feel no
vibration in the larynx. [s] is a voiceless sound.
For the production of voice, the vocal folds are brought together. When air
is pushed out from the lungs, it encounters the vocal folds as an obstacle. Air
pressure builds up under the folds until the folds are literally blown apart, and
air escapes through the glottis. The folds then return to their original position.
Air pressure builds up again, and the cycle is repeated. This repeated cycle
makes the folds vibrate. Each opening and closing cycle is very brief. In men,
the frequency ranges from about 80 to 150 cps (cycles per second), in women,
from about 120 up to 300 cps. For children, the rate may be even higher.
The frequency of the opening and closing cycle determines the pitch of the
sound; the higher the frequency, the higher the perceived pitch. The auditory
sensation of pitch is produced by the pattern of regular bursts of air passing
through the glottis.
Voicelessness ensues when the vocal folds are completely brought apart.
When air from the lungs reaches the larynx, it encounters no obstacle, and flows
Chapter 5.The sounds of language 105
freely though the glottis. Whisper is characterized by voicelessness throughout.
Uvula
Pharynx
Glottis
Esophagus
lungs
Windpipe
Larynx
Oral cavity
Nasal cavity
Figure 1.The vocal tract airflow
For obvious reasons, it is not possible to produce a voiceless sound with pitch,
or with pitch variations.
When the airstream, in passing through the oral cavity, is “obstructed” to
a marked degree, the sounds thus formed are collectively known as obstruents.
Many obstruents come in pairs of voiced and voiceless sounds. Here is a list of
the English obstruents, in their voiced/voiceless pairings.
Voiced Voiceless
[b] “big” [p] “pig”
[d] “do” [t] “too”
[:] “gum” [k] “come”
[v] “vine” [f] “fine”
[ð] “them” [θ] “thin”
[z] “zoo” [s] “Sue”
[Š] “measure” [w] “mesh”
[dŠ] “jeer” [tw] “cheer”
106 Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics
The other main class of consonants, the sonorants, are typically voiced. (We can
think of sonorants as the “hummable” consonants.) These include the nasals
[m], [n] and []], the liquids [l] and [r], and the glides [j] and [w].
[m] “me”
[n] “knee”
[]] “sing”
[l] “love”
[r] “ray”
[j] “yes”
[w] “when”
5.2.2 Articulation
The second major component of speech production is articulation, i.e. the
shaping of the vocal tract as air passes through it. Aspects of articulation will be
studied in the next sections, which deal with the characterization of consonants
and vowels.
5.3
Consonants
Consonants and vowels are distinguished mainly in terms of the degree of
constriction in the vocal tract. Consonants involve some major constriction,
which obstructs the airflow at some point. Vowels on the other hand merely
involve a distinctive shaping of the oral cavity, with relatively little impedance
of the air flow.
Consonants can be described in terms of two major parameters: the place
in the vocal tract at which constriction occurs (place of articulation), and the
nature of the constriction (manner of articulation).
5.3.1
Places of articulation
In the articulation of a consonant, a movable articulator (usually some part of
the tongue, or the lips) is moved towards a more stable articulator (e.g. the
upper teeth, or some part of the palate). The following terms describe the more
common places of articulation.
– bilabial [p, b, m]. The lower lip articulates with the upper lip
Chapter 5.The sounds of language 107
– labiodental [f, v]. The lower lip articulates with the upper teeth
– dental [θ, ð]. The tongue tip articulates with the top teeth
– alveolar [t, d, n, l, s, z]. The tongue tip articulates with the alveolar ridge.
Also many articulations of “r”.
– alveopalatal [w, Š]. The tongue front (excluding the tip) articulates with the
back part of the alveolar ridge.
– palatal [j]. The tongue blade articulates with the back part of the alveolar ridge.
– velar [k, :]. The tongue back articulates with the velum (soft palate). [k, :]
before back vowels, as in core, gore.
Uvula:
uvular
Pharynx
Glottis
Esophagus
Larynx
Nose:
nasals
Velum:
velars
Palatum:
palatals
Jaw
lips:
labials
Alveloar ridge:
alveolars
Teeth: dentals
Figure 2.Vocal tract: Places of articulation
5.3.2 Manner of articulation
Manner of articulation describes the kind of constriction that is made. The
following are the major categories (see Table 1):
– stops (plosives) [p,t,k,b,d,:, ‘]. Stops are made by completely blocking the
airstream at some point in the oral cavity.
– fricatives [f, v, θ,ð,s,z,w, Š]. They are made with a very narrow gap between
the articulators. The airstream passes through this gap under high pressure,
causing friction.
– affricates [tw,dŠ]. They are complex sounds, consisting of a stop followed
immediately by a fricative at the same place of articulation. Here, the stop is
gradually released so as to form a narrow constricted gap for the air to flow
through; this is the fricative part of the affricate.