Cobbs-Hoffman Elizabeth, Blum Edward J., Gjerde Jon. Major Problems in American History, Volume I, 3 edition (ENG)
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“You say that you are sent to instruct us how to worship the Great Spirit
agreeably to his mind, and, if we do not take hold of the religion which you
white people teach, we shall be unhappy hereafter. You say that you are right
and we are lost. How do we know this to be true? We understand that your
religion is written in a book. If it was intended for us as well as you, why has
not the Great Spirit given to us, and not only to us, but why did he not give to
our forefathers the knowledge of that book, with the means of understanding it
rightly? We only know what you tell us about it. How shall we know when to
believe, being so often deceived by the white people?
“Brother; You say there is but one way to worship and serve the Great
Spirit. If there is but one religion; why do you white people differ so much
about it? Why not all agreed, as you can all read the book?
“Brother; We do not understand these things.
“We are told that your religion was given to your forefathers, and has been
handed down from father to son. We also have a religion, which was given to
our forefathers, and has been handed down to us their children. We worship in
that way. It teaches us to be thankful for all the favors we receive; to love each
other, and to be united. We never quarrel about religion.
“Brother; The Great Spirit has made us all, but he has made a great differ-
ence between his white and red children. He has given us different complexions
and different customs. To you He has given the arts. To these He has not
opened our eyes. We know these things to be true. Since He has made so great
a difference between us in other things; why may we not conclude that He has
given us a different religion according to our understanding? The Great Spirit
does right. He knows what is best for his children; we are satisfied.
“Brother; we do not wish to destroy your religion or take it from you. We
only want to enjoy our own.
“Brother; We are told that you have been preaching to white people in this
place. These people are our neighbors. We are acquainted with them. We will
wait a little while, and see what effect your preaching has upon them. If we find
it does them good, makes them honest, and less disposed to cheat Indians; we
will then consider again of what you have said.
“Brother; you have now heard our answer to your talk, and this is all we
have to say at present.
“As we are going to part, we will come and take you by the hand, and hope
the Great Spirit will protect you on your journey, and return you safe to your
friends.”
As the Indians began to approach the missionary, he rose hastily from his seat
and replied, that he could not take them by the hand; that there was no fellow-
ship between the religion of God and the works of the devil.
This being interpreted to the Indians, they smiled, and retired in a peaceable
manner.
It being afterwards suggested to the missionary that his reply to the Indians
was rather indiscreet; he observed, that he supposed the ceremony of shaking
hands would be received by them as a token that he assented to what was said.
Being otherwise informed, he said he was very sorry for the expressions.
FOREIGN POLICY, WESTERN MOVEMENT, AND INDIAN REMOVAL 203
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4. William Cullen Bryant Satirizes the Embargo Act, 1808
… WAKE Muse of Satire, in the cause of trade,
Thou scourge of miscreants who the laws evade!
Dart thy keen glances, knit thy threat’ning brows,
And hurl thine arrows at fair Commerce’s foes!
M
UCH injur’d Commerce! ’tis thy falling cause,
Which, from obscurity, a stripling draws;
And were his powers but equal to his zeal,
Thy dastard foes his keen reproach should feel.
Curse of our Nation, source of countless woes,
From whole dark womb unreckon’d misery flows;
Th’ embargo rages like a sweeping wind,
Fear low’rs before, and famine stalks behind.
What words, oh, Muse! can paint the mournful scene,
The saddening street, the desolated green;
How hungry labourers leave their toil and sigh,
And sorrow droops in each desponding eye!
S
EX the bold sailor from the ocean torn,
His element, sink friendless and forlorn!
His suffering spouse the tear of anguish shed,
His starving children cry in vain for bread!
T
HE farmer, since supporting trade is fled,
Leaves the rude joke, and cheerless hangs his head;
Misfortunes fall, an unremitting shower,
Debts follow debts, on taxes, taxes pour.
See in his stores his hoarded produce rot,
Or sheriff sales his profits bring to naught;
Disheartening cares in thronging myriads flow,
Till down he sinks to poverty and woe!
O
H, ye bright pair, the blessing of mankind!
Whom time has sanction’d, and whom fate has join’d,
C
OMMERCE, that bears the trident of the main,
And
AGRICULTURE, empress of the plain;
Who, hand in hand, and heav’n - directed, go
William Cullen Bryant, The Embargo, or Sketches of the Times (1808).
204 MAJOR PROBLEMS IN AMERICAN HISTORY
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Diffusing gladness through the world below;
Whoe’er the wretch, would hurl the flaming brand,
Of dire disunion, palsied be his hand! …
W
HEN shall this land, some courteous angel say,
Throw off a weak, and erring ruler’s sway ?
Rife, injur’d people, vindicate your cause!
And prove your love of Liberty and laws;
Oh wrest, sole refuge of a sinking land,
The sceptre from the slave’s imbecile hand!
Oh ne’er consent, obsequious, to advance
The willing vassal of imperious France!
Correct that suffrage you misus’d before,
And lift your voice above a Congress’ roar? …
Go, wretch, resign the presidential chair,
Disclose thy secret measures foul or fair,
Go, search, with curious eye, for horned frogs,
’Mongst the wild wastes of Louisianian bogs;
Or where Ohio rolls his turbid stream,
Dig for huge bones, thy glory and thy theme; …
5. Shawnee Chief Tecumseh Recounts the Misdeeds
of Whites and Calls for Indian Unity, 1810
Brother, I wish you to give me close attention, because I think you do not clearly
understand. I want to speak to you about promises that the Americans have made.
You recall the time when the Jesus Indians of the Delawares lived near the
Americans, and had confidence in their promises of friendship, and thought they
were secure, yet the Americans murdered all the men, women, and children,
even as they prayed to Jesus?
The same promises were given to the Shawnee one time. It was at Fort
Finney, where some of my people were forced to make a treaty. Flags were
given to my people, and they were told they were now the children of the
Americans. We were told, if any white people mean to harm you, hold up these
flags and you will then be safe from all danger. We did this in good faith. But
what happened? Our beloved chief Moluntha stood with the American flag in
front of him and that very peace treaty in his hand, but his head was chopped by
an American officer, and that American officer was never punished.
Speech to William Harrison, governor of the Indian Territory (August 11, 1810). http://injesus.com/messages/content/
45035.
FOREIGN POLICY, WESTERN MOVEMENT, AND INDIAN REMOVAL
205
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Brother, after such bitter events, can you blame me for placing little confi-
dence in the promises of Americans? …
It is you, the Americans, by such bad deeds, who push the red men to do
mischief. You do not want unity among the tribes, and you destroy it. You try
to make differences between them. We, their leaders, wish them to unite and
consider their land the common property of all, but you try to keep them from
this. You separate the tribes and deal with them that way, one by one, and advise
them not to come into this union. Your states have set an example of forming a
union among all the Fires, why should you censure the Indians for following that
example?
But, brother, I mean to bring all the tribes together, in spite of you, and
until I have finished, I will not go to visit your president. Maybe I will when
I have finished, maybe. The reason I tell you this, you want, by making your
distinctions of Indian tribes and allotting to each a particular tract of land, to set
them against each other, and thus to weaken us….
The only way to stop this evil is for all the red men to unite in claiming an
equal right in the land. That is how it was at first, and should be still, for the land
never was divided, but was for the use of everyone. Any tribe could go to an
empty land and make a home there. And if they left, another tribe could come
there and make a home. No groups among us have a right to sell, even to one
another, and surely not to outsiders who want all, and will not do with less.
Sell a country! Why not sell the air, the clouds, and the Great Sea, as well as
the earth? Did not the Great Good Spirit make them all for the use of his
children?
Brother, I was glad to hear what you told us. you said that if we could prove
that the land was sold by people who had no right to sell it, you would restore it.
I will prove that those who did sell did not own it. Did they have a deed? A
title? No! You say those prove someone owns land. Those chiefs only spoke a
claim, and so you pretended to believe their claim, only because you wanted the
land. But the many tribes with me will not agree with those claims. They have
never had a title to sell, and we agree this proves you could not buy it from
them. If the land is not given back to us, you will see, when we return to our
homes from here, how it will be settled. It will be like this:
We shall have a great council, at which all tribes will be present. We shall
show to those who sold that they had no rights to the claim they set up, and we
shall see what will be done to those chiefs who did sell the land to you. I am not
alone in this determination, it is the determination of all the warriors and red
people who listen to me. Brother, I now wish you to listen to me. If you do
not wipe out that treaty, it will seem that you wish me to kill all the chiefs
who sold the land! I tell you so because I am authorized by all tribes to do so!
I am the head of them all! All my warriors will meet together with me in two or
three moons from now. Then I will call for those chiefs who sold you this land,
and we shall know what to do with them. If you do not restore the land, you
will have had a hand in killing them!
I am Shawnee! I am a warrior! My forefathers were warriors. From them
I took only my birth into this world. From my tribe I take nothing. I am the
206 MAJOR PROBLEMS IN AMERICAN HISTORY
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maker of my own destiny! And of that I might make the destiny of my red
people, of our nation, as great as I conceive to in my mind, when I think of
Weshemoneto, who rules this universe! I would not then have to come to
Governor Harrison and ask him to tear up this treaty and wipe away the marks
upon the land. No! I would say to him, “Sir, you may return to your own
country!” The being within me hears the voice of the ages, which tells me that
once, always, and until lately, there were no white men on all this island, that it
then belonged to the red men, children of the same parents, placed on it by the
Great Good Spirit who made them, to keep it, to traverse it, to enjoy its yield,
and to people it with the same race. Once they were a happy race! Now they are
made miserable by the white people, who are never contented but are always
coming in! You do this always, after promising not to anyone, yet you ask us
to have confidence in your promises. How can we have confidence in the white
people? When Jesus Christ came upon the earth, you killed him, the son of your
own God, you nailed him up! You thought he was dead, but you were mis-
taken. And only after you thought you killed him did you worship him, and start
killing those who would not worship him. What kind of a people is this for us to
trust?
Now, Brother, everything I have said to you is the truth, as Weshemoneto
has inspired me to speak only truth to you. I have declared myself freely to you
about my intentions. And I want to know your intentions. I want to know what
you are going to do about the taking of our land. I want to hear you say that
you understand now, and will wipe out that pretended treaty, so that the tribes
can be at peace with each other, as you pretend you want them to be. Tell me,
brother. I want to know now.
6. Tenskwatawa (the Prophet) Relates
His Journey to the World Above, 1810
I died and went to the World Above, and saw it.
The punishments I saw terrify you! But listen, those punishments will be
upon you unless you follow me through the door that I am opening for you!
Our Creator put us on this wide, rich land, and told us we were free to go
where the game was, where the soil was good for planting. That was our state of
true happiness. We did not have to beg for anything. Our Creator had taught us
how to find and make everything we needed, from trees and plants and animals
and stone. We lived in bark, and we wore only the skins of animals.
Thus were we created. Thus we lived for a long time, proud and happy. We
had never eaten pig meat, nor tasted the poison called whiskey, nor worn wool
from sheep, nor struck fire or dug earth with steel, nor cooked in iron, nor
hunted and fought with loud guns, nor ever had diseases which soured our
blood or rotted our organs. We were pure, so we were strong and happy.
Message of the Shawnee Prophet Tenskwatawa, “he who opens the door”. Obtained from http://history.missouristate.
edu/FTMiller/EarlyRepublic/tecandtensk.htm
FOREIGN POLICY, WESTERN MOVEMENT, AND INDIAN REMOVAL
207
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For many years we traded furs to the English or the French, for wool
blankets and guns and iron things, for steel awls and needles and axes, for
mirrors, for pretty things made of beads and silver. And for liquor. This was fool-
ish, but we did not know it. We shut our ears to the Great Good Spirit. We did
not want to hear that we were being foolish.
But now those things of the white men have corrupted us, and made us
weak and needful. Our men forgot how to hunt without noisy guns. Our
women don’t want to make fire without steel, or cook without iron, or sew
without metal awls and needles, or fish without steel hooks. Some look in those
mirrors all the time, and no longer teach their daughters to make leather or ren-
der bear oil. We learned to need the white men’s goods, and so now a People
who never had to beg for anything must beg for everything!
Some of our women married white men, and made half-breeds. Many of us
now crave liquor. He whose filthy name I will not speak, he who was I before,
was one of the worst of those drunkards. There are drunkards in almost every
family. You know how bad this is.
And so you see what has happened to us. We were fools to take all these
things that weakened us. We did not need them then, but we believe we need
them now. We turned our backs on the old ways. Instead of thanking the Great
Spirit for all we used to have, we turned to the white man and asked them for
more. So now we depend upon the very people who destroy us! This is our
weakness! Our corruption! Our Creator scolded me, “If you had lived the way
I taught you, the white men could never have got you under their foot!”
And that is why Our Creator purified me and sent me down to you full of
the shinning power, to make you what you were before!
No red man must ever drink liquor, or he will go and have the hot lead
poured in his mouth!
No red man shall take more than one wife in the future. No red man shall
run after women. If he is single, let him lake a wife, and lie only with her.
Any red woman who is living with a white man must return to her people,
and must leave her children with the husband, so that all nations will be pure in
their blood.
Now hear what I was told about dealing with white men! These things we
must do, to cleanse ourselves of their corruption!
Do not eat any food that is raised or cooked by a white person. It is not
good for us. Eat not their bread made of wheat, for Our Creator gave us corn
for our bread. Eat not the meat of their filthy swine, nor of their chicken fowls,
nor the beef of their cattle, which are tame and thus have no spirit in them.
Their foods will seem to fill your empty belly, but this deceives you for food
without spirit does not nourish you.
There are two kinds of white men. There are the Americans, and there are
the others. You may give your hand in friendship to the French, or the Spa-
niards, or the British. But the Americans are not like those. The Americans
come from the slime of the sea, with mud and weeds in their claws, and they
are a kind of crayfish serpent whose claws grab in our earth and take it from
us….
208 MAJOR PROBLEMS IN AMERICAN HISTORY
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… Remember it is the wish of the Great Good Spirit that we have no more
commerce with white men!
We may keep our guns, and if we need to defend ourselves against Ameri-
can white men, the guns will kill them because they are a white man’s weapon.
But arrows will kill American intruders, too! You must go to the grandfathers
and have them teach you to make good bows and shape arrowheads, and you
must recover the old hunting skills….
We will no longer do the frolic dances that excite lust. The Great Good
Spirit will teach me the old dances we did before the corruption, and from these
dances we will receive strength and happiness!
7. President James Monroe Declares That European Powers
May Not Interfere in the Americas, 1823
… [A]s a principle in which the rights and interests of the United States are in-
volved, that the American continents, by the free and independent condition
which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as
subjects for future colonization by any European powers.
… Of events in that quarter of the globe, with which we have so much
intercourse, and from which we derive our origin, we have always been anxious
and interested spectators. The citizens of the United States cherish sentiments the
most friendly, in favor of the liberty and happiness of their fellow men on that
side of the Atlantic. In the wars of the European powers, in matters relating to
themselves, we have never taken any part, nor does it comport with our policy
so to do. It is only when our rights are invaded, or seriously menaced, that we
resent injuries, or make preparation for our defense. With the movements in this
hemisphere, we are, of necessity, more immediately connected, and by causes
which must be obvious to all enlightened and impartial observers. The political
system of the allied powers is essentially different, in this respect, from that of
America. This difference proceeds from that which exists in their respective
governments. And to the defence of our own, which has been achieved by the
loss of so much blood and treasure, and matured by the wisdom of their most
enlightened citizens, and under which we have enjoyed unexampled felicity, this
whole nation is devoted. We owe it, therefore, to candor, and to the amicable
relations existing between the United States and those powers, to declare, that
we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any por-
tion of this hemisphere, as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing
colonies or dependencies of any European power, we have not interfered, and
shall not interfere. But, with the governments who have declared their indepen-
dence and maintained it, and whose independence we have, on great considera-
tion and on just principles, acknowledged, we could not view any interposition
for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling, in any other manner, their
destiny, by any European power, in any other light than as the manifestation of
James Monroe, The Monroe Doctrine (1823).
FOREIGN POLICY, WESTERN MOVEMENT, AND INDIAN REMOVAL
209
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an unfriendly disposition towards the United States. In the war between these
new governments and Spain, we declared our neutrality at the time of their rec-
ognition, and to this we have adhered, and shall continue to adhere, provided no
change shall occur, which, in the judgment of the competent authorities of this
government, shall make a corresponding change, on the part of the United
States, indispensable to their security.
…Our policy, in regard to Europe, which was adopted at an early stage of
the wars which have so long agitated that quarter of the globe, nevertheless re-
mains the same, which is, not to interfere in the internal concerns of any of its
powers; to consider the government de facto as the legitimate government for
us; to cultivate friendly relations with it, and to preserve those relations by a
frank, firm, and manly policy, meeting, in all instances, the just claims of every
power, submitting to injuries from none. But, in regard to those continents, cir-
cumstances are eminently and conspicuously different.
It is impossible that the allied powers should extend their political system to
any portion of either continent, without endangering our peace and happiness;
nor can any one believe that our Southern Brethren, if left to themselves, would
adopt it of their own accord. It is equally impossible, therefore, that we should
behold such interposition, in any form, with indifference. If we look to the com-
parative strength and resources of Spain and those new governments, and their
distance from each other, it must be obvious that she can never subdue them. It
is still the true policy of the United States, to leave the parties to themselves, in
the hope that other powers will pursue the same course.
8. The Cherokee Nation Pleads to Remain
“on the Land of Our Fathers,” 1830
We are aware, that some persons suppose it will be for our advantage to remove
beyond the Mississippi. We think otherwise. Our people universally think other-
wise. Thinking that it would be fatal to their interests, they have almost to a man
sent their memorial to congress, deprecating the necessity of a removal. This ques-
tion was distinctly before their minds when they signed their memorial. Not an
adult person can be found, who has not an opinion on the subject, and if
the people were to understand distinctly, that they could be protected against the
laws of the neighboring states, there is probably not an adult person in the nation,
who would think it best to remove; though possibly a few might emigrate indi-
vidually. There are doubtless many, who would flee to an unknown country,
however beset with dangers, privations and sufferings, rather than be sentenced
to spend six years in a Georgia prison for advising one of their neighbors not to
betray his country. And there are others who could not think of living as outlaws
in their native land, exposed to numberless vexations, and excluded from being
parties or witnesses in a court of justice. It is incredible that Georgia should ever
have enacted the oppressive laws to which reference is here made, unless she had
“Memorial of the Cherokee Nation,” Niles Weekly Register 38 (August 21, 1830): 454–457.
210 MAJOR PROBLEMS IN AMERICAN HISTORY
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supposed that something extremely terrific in its character was necessary in order
to make the Cherokees willing to remove. We are not willing to remove; and if
we could be brought to this extremity, it would be not by argument, not because
our judgment was satisfied, not because our condition will be improved; but only
because we cannot endure to be deprived of our national and individual rights and
subjected to a process of intolerable oppression.
We wish to remain on the land of our fathers. We have a perfect and origi-
nal right to remain without interruption or molestation. The treaties with us, and
laws of the United States made in pursuance of treaties, guarantee our residence
and our privileges, and secure us against intruders. Our only request is, that these
treaties may be fulfilled, and these laws executed….
The removal of families to a new country, even under the most favorable
auspices, and when the spirits are sustained by pleasing visions of the future, is
attended with much depression of mind and sinking of heart. This is the case,
when the removal is a matter of decided preference, and when the persons con-
cerned are in early youth or vigorous manhood. Judge, then, what must be the
circumstances of a removal, when a whole community, embracing persons of all
classes and every description, from the infant to the man of extreme old age, the
sick, the blind, the lame, the improvident, the reckless, the desperate, as well as
the prudent, the considerate, the industrious, are compelled to remove by odious
and intolerable vexations and persecutions, brought upon them in the forms of
law, when all will agree only in this, that they have been cruelly robbed of their
country, in violation of the most solemn compacts, which it is possible for com-
munities to form with each other; and that, if they should make themselves
comfortable in their new residence, they have nothing to expect hereafter but
to be the victims of a future legalized robbery!
Such we deem, and are absolutely certain, will be the feelings of the whole
Cherokee people, if they are forcibly compelled, by the laws of Georgia, to re-
move; and with these feelings, how is it possible that we should pursue our pres-
ent course of improvement, or avoid sinking into utter despondency? We have
been called a poor, ignorant, and degraded people. We certainly are not rich; nor
have we ever boasted of our knowledge, or our moral or intellectual elevation.
But there is not a man within our limits so ignorant as not to know that he has a
right to live on the land of his fathers, in the possession of his immemorial pri-
vileges, and that this right has been acknowledged and guaranteed by the United
States; nor is there a man so degraded as not to feel a keen sense of injury, on
being deprived of this right and driven into exile.
9. President Andrew Jackson Defends Indian Removal, 1833
… It gives me pleasure to announce to Congress that the benevolent policy of
the Government, steadily pursued for nearly thirty years, in relation to the re-
moval of the Indians beyond the white settlements, is approaching to a happy
consummation. Two important tribes have accepted the provision made for their
Andrew Jackson, Second Inaugural Address (1833).
FOREIGN POLICY, WESTERN MOVEMENT, AND INDIAN REMOVAL
211
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removal at the last session of Congress; and it is believed that their example will
induce the remaining tribes, also, to seek the same obvious advantages.
The consequences of a speedy removal will be important to the United
States, to individual States, and to the Indians themselves. The pecuniary advan-
tages which it promises to the Government are the least of its recommendations.
It puts an end to all possible danger of collision between the authorities of the
General and State Governments, on account of the Indians. It will place a dense
and civilized population in large tracts of country now occupied by a few savage
hunters. By opening the whole territory between Tennessee on the north, and
Louisiana on the south, to the settlements of the whites, it will incalculably
strengthen the southwestern frontier, and render the adjacent States strong en-
ough to repel future invasion without remote aid. It will relieve the whole State
of Mississippi, and the western part of Alabama, of Indian occupancy, and enable
those States to advance rapidly in population, wealth, and power. It will separate
the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites; free them from
the power of the States; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way, and
under their own rude institutions; will retard the progress of decay, which is less-
ening their numbers; and perhaps cause them gradually, under the protection of
the Government, and through the influence of good counsels, to east off their
savage habits, and become an interesting, civilized, and Christian community.
These consequences, some of them so certain, and the rest so probable, make
the complete execution of the plan sanctioned by Congress at their last session
an object of much solicitude.
Towards the aborigines of the country no one can indulge a more friendly
feeling than myself, or would go further in attempting to reclaim them from
their wandering habits, and make them a happy, prosperous people. I have en-
deavored to impress upon them my own solemn convictions of the duties and
powers of the General Government in relation to the State authorities. For the
justice of the law, passed by the States within the scope of their reserved powers,
they are not responsible to this Government. As individuals, we may entertain
and express our opinions of their acts; but, as a Government, we have as little
right to control them as we have to prescribe laws for other nations.
With a full understanding of the subject, the Choctaw and Chickasaw tribes
have, with great unanimity, determined to avail themselves of the liberal offers
presented by the act of Congress, and have agreed to remove beyond the Mis-
sissippi river. Treaties have been made with them, which, in due season, will be
submitted for consideration. In negotiating these treaties, they were made to un-
derstand their true condition; and they have preferred maintaining their indepen-
dence in the western forests to submitting to the laws of the States in which they
now reside. These treaties being probably the last which will ever be made with
them, are characterized by great liberality on the part of the Government. They
give the Indians a liberal sum in consideration of their removal, and comfortable
subsistence on their arrival at their new homes. If it be their real interest to main-
tain a separate existence, they will there be at liberty to do so without the incon-
veniences and vexations to which they would unavoidably have been subject in
Alabama and Mississippi.
212 MAJOR PROBLEMS IN AMERICAN HISTORY
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