Becker W. Advanced Time-Correlated Single Photon Counting Techniques
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Index
2
2p microscope 124, 131
2p excitation 132, 201
2p IRF 158, 203
A
Aberrations of lenses 269
Absorption coefficients 105
Absorption of biological tissue 98
Absorption, in DOT 99
Accuracy
of ADC 52
of lifetime measurements 77
Achromatic lenses 270
Acquisition time 9
of multigate FLIM 16
of TCSPC FLIM 162
of TCSPC in dynamic brain
imaging 110
of TCSPC in optical
mammography 104
of TCSPC in static brain imaging
108
Active quenching, of APD 218
ADC 24, 52
differential nonlinearity 53
error correction 52
resolution 54
zoom 54
Afterpulsing 233
effect on background 74, 294
measurement of 239
Aggregates 63, 130
Amplified CCDs 221
Amplifiers
biased, in TAC 24, 326
for detector signals 300
Amplitude distribution 226
measurement of 237
of single photon pulses 226
Amplitude jitter, of photon pulses
222, 223
Amplitude-phase crosstalk 101, 298
Analog-to-digital converter 24, 52
Anisotropy decay 200
Anisotropy, of fluorescence 79
Anode
crossed-wire, of PMT 215
delay-line, of PMT 41
resistive, of PMT 39, 215
wedge-and-strip, of PMT 39
Anode luminous sensitivity 229, 241
Anti-bunching 170
by CW excitation 171
by pulsed excitation 171
coincidence rate 173
combined with FCS 188
APD 174, 184
gain 218
geiger mode 218
light emission from 185, 220
optical crosstalk 174, 185
quenching 218
single-photon 218
Aspheric lenses 271
Attenuators 310
Autocorrelation, in FCS 178
Autofluorescence 121, 130
imaging 123
in ophthalmology 126
lifetime 121
multispectral TCSPC 122
of skin 123
two-photon excitation 124
Avalanche Photodiodes 217
390 Index
B
Background count rate 231, 251
Background, caused by afterpulsing
74, 233, 294
Background, signal-dependent 294
Baffling 288
Ballistic photons 98, 133
Bandwidth, of preamplifier 301
Barrier Discharges 208
Beam collimation, for interference
filters 276
Beam profile of diode lasers 264
Beam splitters 278
broadband 278
dichroic 85, 279
polarising 279
BG39 filter 155, 156
Bialakali photocathode 156, 230
Biased amplifier 24, 326
BIFL 194
Binning, in ADC 54
Blocking filter, for 2p excitation
138, 141, 154, 156
Box dynode PMT 214
Brain imaging, by DOT 106
Broken cables, electrical shock 315
Burst-Integrated Fluorescence
Lifetime 194
Bursts, of photons from single
molecules 194, 199
C
Cables 308
distortions in 309
impedance matching 308
reflections 308
transit time 309
transit time, vs. temperature 310
Calibration
DNL 331
time scale 345
Cathode effficiency 229
Cathode effficiency, measurement
of 241
Cathode luminous sensitivity 229,
241
Cathode materials 230
Cathode quantum efficiency 229
Cathode radiant sensitivity 229, 241
Centroid 77
CFD 23, 47, 317
cable length 323
optimisation 317
pulse shaping 317
reference channel 322
threshold 318
threshold scan 319
zero cross 321
zero cross scan 321
CFP 149
Channel PMT 214, 258
Channel PMT, IRF 258
Characteristic impedance, of cable
308
Charged cables 316
Chip laser 267
Chlorophyll
chlorophyll transients 90
Kautski effect 90
nonphotochemical quenching 91
photochemical quenching 91
photoinhibition 91
remote measureement of
fluorescence 204
Chromatical aberration 269
Circular dynode PMT 214
Coincidence rate, of Hanbury-
Brown-Twiss experiment 173
Collimator lens 284
Colour glass filters 273
Confocal detection 138, 157, 164,
176, 289
Confocal microscope 124, 131
Conjugate ratio 270
Connectors 307
Constant fraction discriminator
optimisation 317
Constant-fraction discriminator 23,
47
Constant-fraction discriminator 317
Continuous flow mode, of TCSPC
36, 110, 194
Continuous-flow mixing 94
Index 391
Cooled PMT modules 245
Cooling of PMTs 232
Correlation, of delayed detector
signals 188
Coulour shift
in monochromators 280
Count rate 8, 45
dark count rate of SPAD 219
in FCS 186
maximum 339
maximum useful 339
MCP-PMT 244
of FLIM 159
saturated 339
Counting efficiency
of multidetector TCSPC 32
Counting loss 45, 323, 338
dead-time compensation 342
in multidetector TCSPC 32
nonreversed start-stop 339
reversed start-stop 340
Coupling, into fibres 283
Cross correlation of two TCSPC
channels 189
Cross-correlation, in FCS 179
Crossed-wire anode PMT 215
Crosstalk
between start and stop 330
optical, between APDs 174, 185
D
Damage, by charged cables 316
Dark count rate 156, 219, 231, 251,
304
Dead time 323, 338
Dead time, signal distortion 343
Dead-time compensation 342
Decay, of FRET donor fluorescence
151
Deconvolution 75
Delay generator in stop channel 326
Delay, in cables 309
Delay, in cables, vs. temperature
310
Delay, in reference channel 324, 329
Delay, of stop signal 310, 324, 329
Delay-line anode 217
Delay-line anode, of PMT 41
Depolarisation, of fluorescence 79
Depth resolution, by confocal
principle 132
Depth resolution, by two-photon
excitation 132
Descanned detection 132, 133, 138,
157
Detection, descanned 132, 133,
138, 157
Detection, multiphoton events 320
Detection, nondescanned 132, 133,
140
Detection, remote 204
Detector
shielding 331
Detector overload protection 140
Detector overload, by microscope
lamp 140
Detector, shielding 313
Detectors
components for overload
protection 303
for DOT 118
for FCS 184
for FLIM 155
for fluorescence lifetime
spectrometers 67
for photon correlation 174
for TCSPC 213
performance of selected 242
PMTs 213
pulse rise time 317
timing stability 296
Dichroic beam splitters 85, 279
Dielectric filters 276
Differential nonlinearity 53, 330
Diffraction orders, of grating 280
Diffuse optical tomography 97
Diode laser 92, 107, 201
Diode laser, coupling, into fibres
283
Diode laser, fast switching 93
Diode lasers 263
beam profile 264
multiplexing 263
392 Index
peak power 264
pulse shape 265
spectral properties 264
Direct detection 132, 133, 140, 157
Discriminators
constant-fraction 23, 47, 110, 317
PMT modules with discriminators
247
Distortion
by classic pile-up 332
by dead time 343
by differential nonlinearity 330
by multiphoton detection 320
by optical reflections 285
in cables 309
Dithering 52
DNL 330
DNL, calibration of 331
DOT 97
absorption 99
brain imaging 106
camera systems 101
detectors 118
DOT systems 100
exogenous chromophores 112
filters 120
fluorescence 99, 115
mammography 102
optical fibres 120
phantoms 104
scanning 101
scattering 99
sequential recording 110
small animal imaging 115
time-of-flight distributions 104,
108, 110
technical aspects 117
traditional setup 100
Double-convex lenses 271
Drift of IRF 78, 298
Dye laser 267
Dynodes 213
E
EBD CCD 221
Efficiency
of grating 280
of monochromators 280
of multidetector TCSPC 32
Electrical discharges, measurement
of 208
Electrical shock, by broken cables,
315
Electrical shock, by charged cables
316
Electron multiplier 214
Electron transfer 63
Endoscopes with GRIN lenses 273
Energy transfer 113, 130
Error correction, in ADC 52
Error, by counting loss 338
Error, by pile-up 332
Event recording
in multichannel scalers 19
Exciplexes 63
Excitation
one-photon 132
two-photon 132
Excitation sources 263
Excitation-wavelength multiplexing
87
Exogenous chromophores, in DOT
112
Experiment trigger 35, 37, 44, 189
External photoeffect 217
F
f number 269
f number, of monochromator 281
False triggering, in reference
channel 322
FCS 44, 176
autocorrelation 178
combined with anti-bunching 188
combined with lifetime 177
count rate 186
cross correlation of two TCSPC
channels 189
cross-correlation 179
CW, stop pulse 184
detectors 184
GFP solution 180
Index 393
in laser scanning microscope
182
one-photon 176
photobleaching 186
saturation effects 186
scanning 182
two-photon 177
Fibre
bundles 120
laser 267
output from scanning head 138
Fibres
coupling 283
gradient-index 283
in DOT 120
multimode 283
pulse dispersion 120, 283
single-mode 283
Fibres, optical 282
FIDA 191
FIFO mode 43, 165, 178, 188, 192,
196
File size 196
Filter, 2p blocking 154, 156
Filters
colour glass 273
fluorescence of 275
in DOT 120
interference 276, 285
ND 285
neutral density 277, 285
First moment
of IRF 77, 119, 297
FLIM 37, 134
acquisition time 162
application to FRET 149
by scan stage 198
by TCSPC and scan stage 163
count rate 159
detectors 155
high-count rate 146
multimodule 146
multispectral 38, 143
multiwavelength 37, 143
of biological tissue 124
of the ocular fundus 126
wide-field 168
Fluorescence 61
anisotropy 69, 79, 200
anisotropy, in high-NA systems
70
depolarisation 69, 79
excited states 62
fluorescence lifetime 62
fluorescence quenching 63
lifetime spectrometers 65
reabsorption 72
resonance energy transfer 64
rotational relaxation 69, 79
time-resolved spectra 82
Fluorescence correlation
spectroscopy 176
Fluorescence correlation
spectroscopy 44
Fluorescence decay, FRET 151
Fluorescence lifetime imaging 37,
134
Fluorescence of filters 275
Fluorescence, in DOT 99, 115
Frame clock 38, 138
Frequency divider
in reference channel 49
Frequency divider, in reference
channel 323, 345
Frequency domain 2, 134
Fresnel Lenses 272
FRET 64, 130, 149
by TCSPC FLIM 149
G
GaAs photocathode 156, 230
GaAs PMT modules 245
GaAsP photocathode 156, 230
Gain
of detector 331
of PMT 222
of TAC 326
Gain mechanism of PMT 213
Gain noise 6
Gain stability 7
Gain, of APDs 218
Gated photon counting 12
gate scanning 14
multigate 14
394 Index
Geiger mode, of APD 218
Gradient-index fibres 283
Gradient-index lenses 273
Grating, efficiency 280
GRIN lenses 273
Ground loops 312
Ground return path, for high voltage
316
Grounding 311, 313
H
H5773 155, 224, 249
H5773, IRF 250
H5773, stability of IRF 298
H5783 155, 211, 249
H5783, IRF 250
H7421, IRF 247
H7422 155, 174, 176, 184, 224,
245, 246
H7422, stability of IRF 298
Hanbury-Brown-Twiss experiment
170
coincidence rate 173
High voltage, for PMT 224, 315
High voltage, safety 315
Hybrid PMT 220
I
ICG 112
Identification of single molecules
196
Imaging
by multispectral TCSPC 143
by multiwavelength TCSPC 37
by TCSPC scanning 37, 123
by wide-field TCSPC 39
Imaging, multispectral 123
Impedance, of cable 308
Indocyanine green 112
Instrument response function 75,
118
Interference filters 155, 276, 285
Interference filters 120
Internal photoeffect 217
Intersystem crossing 199
Inverting transformer 307
IRF 75, 118
channel PMTs 258
first moment 297
H5773 250
H5783 250
H7421 247
H7422 246
in 2p microscopy 158
Linear focused PMTs 255
MCP PMT 243
photosensor modules 250
R3809U 243
R5600 248
R7400 248
side-window PMTs 256
SPCM-AQR 259
stability 78
stability of 298
stability vs. count rate 118
TO8 PMTs 248
two-photon 203
XP2020 255
J
Jitter
amplitude jitter of photon pulses
222, 223
of PMT transit time 224
of pulse amplitude 47
of pulse period 324
of SER amplitude 226
K
Kautsky effect 90
L
Laser diodes
driving by pulse generator 265
for time calibration 346
Laser diodes 263
Laser multiplexing 103, 106, 117,
263
Laser ranging, by TCSPC 206
Laser scanning mammography 102
Laser scanning microscope 124,
131
Index 395
Lasers 263
chip laser 267
diode lasers 263
dye laser 267
fibre laser 267
Nd-YAG laser 267
titanium-sapphire laser 266
LEDs, for time calibration 346
Lenses 269
aberrations 269, 271
achromatic 270
aspheric 271
conjugate ratio 270
double-convex 271
for UV 271
Fresnel 272
gradient-index 273
GRIN 273
numerical aperture 269
orientation of 270
plano-convex 271
single element 271
tranfer lenses 270
Lifetime standard, for time
calibration 345
Lifetime standards 76
Lifetime, of autofluorescence 121
Light source, for time calibration
345
Line clock 38, 138
Linear focused PMT 214, 254
Linearity
of ADC 53
of TAC 330
Luminous sensitivity 229, 241
measurement of 241
M
Macro-time clock, synchronisation
of 189
Mammography, 102
Matching of f numbers 281
Matching, impedence of cables 308
MCP PMT 214, 243
IRF 243
overload protection 245
MCP-PMT
count rate 244
output current 244
R3809U 243
Memory swapping 110
Memory swapping in TCSPC 36
Mesh dynode PMT 214
Metal channel dynode PMT 214
Metal channel PMTs 248
Microchannel PMT 214
Molecular brightness 191
Monochromators 279
Multiakali photocathode 156, 230
Multianode PMT 215, 252
Multichannel analyser 237
Multichannel PMT 243
Multichannel Scalers 16
Multidetector operation
efficency 32
in scanning systems 37
of TCSPC 28
of TCSPC 29
pile-up rejection 337
Multidetector operation 29
Multidetector operation, of TCSPC
84, 108
Multidimensional TCSPC 27
Multimode fibres 283
Multimodule FLIM 146
Multimodule TCSPC systems 45
Multimodules systems
for photon correlation 189
Multiparameter spectrocopy 198
Multiparameter TCSPC 28
Multiphoton detection 320
Multiphoton events 22, 31, 236,
320, 337
Multiphoton microscope 124, 131
Multiplexed TCSPC 33, 103, 106
Multiplexing
of lasers 87, 103, 106, 117, 263
Multiplexing in TCSPC 28
Multiplexing, of excitation-
wavelength 87
Multiscalers 16
Multispectral FLIM 143
Multispectral TCSPC 29, 122
396 Index
Multiwavelength FLIM 143
Multiwavelength operation
in scanning systems 37
Multiwavelength TCSPC 84, 122
N
NA (numerical aperture) 269
NA, of optical fibres 283
Nano particles 63, 130
Nano-particles, for IRF recording
159
ND filters 277, 283, 285
NDD 140, 157
Nd-YAG laser 267
Near-Field Microscope 167
Neutral density filters 277, 283, 285
NIM modules 24
Noise
ground loops 312
in multidetector systems 32
in TAC 328
pickup from environment 311
RF 311
Nondescanned detection 132, 133,
140, 157
Nonlinearity of ADC 53
Nonlinearity, of TAC 330
Nonphotochemical quenching, of
chlorophyll 91
NSOM 167
Numerical aperture (NA) 269
Numerical aperture, of optical fibres
283
O
Offset, of TAC 327
One-photon excitation 132
One-photon FCS 176
Operating voltage, of PMT 224
Ophthalmology 126
Optical crosstalk
between SPADs 174, 185
Optical delay, for time calibration
345
Optical fibres 282
coupling 283
gradient-index 283
in DOT 120
multimode 283
pulse dispersion 120, 283
single-mode 283
Optical sectioning 132
Optical system 268
Optical systems
baffling 288
reflections 285
straylight 288
Optimising the TAC parameters 326
Optimising, CFD parameters 317
Oscilloscope, TCSPC 211
Overload protection 245
Overload protection, components for
303
Overload protection, of detector 140
Overload protection, of PMT 300,
302
P
Parametric downconversion, for QE
measurement 241
Passive quenching, of APD 218
Path length differences in
monochromators 280
PCH 191
Phantoms, for DOT 104
Photobleaching 148
in FCS 186
Photocathodes 156, 230
bialkali 156
GaAs 156
multialkali 156
Photochemical quenching of
chlorophyll 91
Photoinhibition of chlorophyll 91
Photomultiplier tubes 213
Photomultiplier tubes, s. PMTs 234,
242
Photon correlation 169
anti-bunching 170
detectors 174
FCS 176
multimodule 189
start-stop experiment 170