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The approximate ages of the two strictly aquatic

orders of mammals are 52 million years for the

cetaceans and 61 million years for the sirenians (Rose

& Archibald, 2005). Within the Artiodactyla, the

specialized freshwater family Hippopotamidae arose

in the middle Miocene (ca 15 million years ago)

(Rose & Archibald, 2005). Within the carnivores, the

otters split from other Mustelidae between 15 and

8 million years ago (Marmi et al 2004). Within the

Rodentia, the beave rs were believed to be related to

the Sciuridae, while recent studies now place them

close to the Geomyoidea (pocket gophers and allies)

with a possible Eocene origin in North America

(Huchon et al., 2002). There are only two extant

species, but the family was more diverse in the past,

with species not adapted to aquatic life, including a

species living underground (Miocene), and giant

species during the Pleistocene (Mu

ller-Schwarze &

Sun, 2003). The Ichthyomyine forms a diversiﬁed

group of freshwater rodents within the neotropical

muroids; their ecomorphological adaptation to a

semi-aquatic way of life and carnivory is peculiar

among rodents (Voss, 1988).

In some cases, the morphological differentiation of

an aquatic form has occurred in a short time, within a

group of terrestrial forms. The aquatic genet is a

specialized genet, and recent phylogenetic results

(Gaubert et al., 2004) show that this species is

included within the genet clade, suggesting its rapid

adaptation to piscivory and freshwater habitat

occurred via extreme morphological modiﬁcation.

Human related issues

Many of the freshwater mammals are threatened

(IUCN Red List species; IUCN, 2006), both by the

destruction of their habi tat and by direct or speciﬁc

menaces. Also, very little is known about many of the

species and there are insufﬁcient data to determine

the status of their popul ations. The status of

threatened freshwater mammals is given in Table 1.

The major threats to the freshwater mammals are

the modiﬁcation or destruction of their habitat

(deforestation, canalisation of rivers, removal of

bankside vegetation, dams, draining of wetlands),

pollution, trapping, and hunting.

Among the threatened freshwater mammals, the

European mink suffers from competition with the

American mink (escaped from fur farms) and from

over-hunting and habitat loss. In France, an additional

threat comes from unintentional poisoning and trap-

ping. The Amer ican mink is not the only invasive

species in Europe to cause serious threats to indig-

enous wetland species. The South American nutria,

for instance, esca ped from fur farms, and feral

populations have become established in North Amer-

ica, Europe, and Asia, causing damage to river banks

and feeding on wetland plants.

In Africa and Asia, otters are killed for skins and

meat and they are considered responsible for poultry

losses. Bush clearing and deforestation have

destroyed or modiﬁed their habitat. Otters also suffer

from canalisation of rivers, removal of bankside

vegetation, dams, draining of wetlands, and other

man-made habitat changes. Pollution is another major

threat, as are trapping and hunting.

Some more speciﬁc threats affect the hippopota-

mus. The historical range of the common

hippopotamus extended throughout Africa, but is

now limited, with an estimated total population in

2004 of only 120,000–148,000 indivi duals (IUCN/

SSC Hippo Specialist Group, 2006). The numbers in

some countries are unknown. Common hippos have

probably disappeared from Liberia and Maur itania.

Major threats are habitat loss and illegal hunting for

meat and ivory, which have been increasing in recent

years. The trade ban on elephant ivory has increased

illegal hunting of hippos for their teeth—annual

exports of hippopotamus teeth increased by 530%

within 2 years following the ivory ban (IUCN/SSC

Hippo Specialist Group , 2006). The pygmy hippo-

potamus (H. liberiensis) also suffers from hunting

and habitat loss and its total population was estimated

in 2004 at no more than 2,000–3,000 individuals in

the wild (IUCN/SSC Hippo Specialist Group, 2006).

Three species of hippopotamus are recently extinct

(Hippopotamus lemer lei, Hippopotamus laloumena

and Hexaprotodon madagascariensis), but dating of

their remains and times of extinction are debated.

Most of the water-dependent ungulates are thr ea-

tened. Wild Asian buffalo suffer from interbreeding

with feral and domestic buffalo and habitat loss and

degradation. Transmission of diseases and parasites

by domestic livestock and competition with them are

also serious threats.

Certain of the river dolphins and porpoises are

among the most threatened mammals of the world.

Hydrobiologia (2008) 595:607–617 615

123

The Yangtze River dolphin has been regarded for

many years as the world’s most endangered cetacean

(IWC, 2001; Reeves et al., 2003) and the results of a

range-wide survey in late 2006 suggest that it already

may be extinct. River cetaceans suffer from the loss

or fragmentation of habitat (land ‘reclamation’,

channelization, impoundment, diversion, etc.), pollu-

tion, depletion of food resources by ﬁshing, incidental

mortality from ﬁshing operations (entanglement in

nets, electrocution, snagging on hooks, etc.), boat

collisions, and disturbance or displacement by inten-

sive vessel trafﬁc.

The beaver played a very important economic and

historical role during the 16th to 18th century,

particularly in North America. Competition for fur

trade among the European powers resulted in conﬂict

over territory and trade hegemony (Mu

ller-Schwarze

& Sun, 2003). As a consequence of trapping and

hunting, by the end of the 19th century the popula-

tions of beavers in both North America and Eurasia

had been reduced and even extirpated from large

areas portions of their range (Veron, 1992a,b).

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Hydrobiologia (2008) 595:607–617 617

123

FRESHWATER ANIMAL DIVERSITY ASSESSMENT

Global diversity of freshwater birds (Aves)

Olivier Dehorter Æ Matt hieu Guillemain

 Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007

Abstract Among the 10,000 birds species living on

earth, 5% (e.g., 560) need imperatively freshwater

habitat in order to satisfy at least one of their life

history traits. About 11 completed families could

even disappear if their wetland habitat left. About

10% (58) of these can be considered as endemic.

Africa contains the biggest number of endemic (20)

and more precisely Madagascar. Among freshwater

species, ducks and geese have a major importance in

human activities in northern hemisphere related to

food resources (hunting) or birding.

Keywords Birds  Aves  Wetland 

Emdemism

Introduction

Birds have colonized all continents (from the Arctic

to the Antarctic) and all habitats on earth (from the

desert to the open sea) since their separation from the

Archosauria at the cretacean (end of the secondary

era) (Xu et al. 2003). Today, with some few excep-

tions (ostriches, Struthionidae; kiwi, Apterygidae;

penguins, Spheniscidae;…), most bird species are

able to ﬂy, and for the general public birds are the

only animals wearing feathers (an evolution from

reptilian scales). As compared to other taxa, e.g.,

insects, bird species are not particularly numerous.

Approximately 10,000 species have been described

so far. Even if some new species continue to be

discovered (see details below), the large interest for

this group and the amount of natural history surveys

for centuries allow us to believe that only a few more

bird species will be discovered in the future.

According to traditional taxonomical classiﬁca-

tion, it is especially the oldest bird families that

inhabit water habitats. Seawater and freshwater were

therefore most likely the oldest habitats colonized by

birds. Many bird taxonomical families use freshwater

for all or a part of their cycle life. However, within

this habitat type several geographical regions are

often used by a given species, due to the migratory

behaviour of most of them.

In this article, we considered as freshwater birds

those species in which all individuals spend at least a

part of their annual lifecycle in freshwater habitats

Guest editors: E.V. Balian, C. Le

que, H. Segers &

K. Martens

Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment

O. Dehorter (&)

Centre de Recherche sur la Biologie des Populations

d’Oiseaux, MNHN, Case Postale 51, 55 rue Buffon, Paris

75005, France

e-mail: Dehorter@mnhn.fr

M. Guillemain

Ofﬁce National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage,

CNERA Avifaune Migratrice, La Tour du Valat,

Le Sambuc, Arles 13200, France

e-mail: m.guillemain@oncfs.gouv.fr

123

Hydrobiologia (2008) 595:619–626

DOI 10.1007/s10750-007-9121-2

(i.e., habitats where salinity is generally below 0.5 g/l)

(Sibley & Monroe 1991; Birdlife international 2000),

contrary to the birdlife deﬁnition which is more

ﬂexible. Thus, a species breeding in marshes as well

as in mangroves is not included here, whereas a

species wintering only in reedbeds and breeding in

forests is considered. Typically aquatic species relying

only on seawaters, e.g., penguins, are not considered

either. In others words, the rule we followed was to

select the species in which disappearance of a

freshwater habitat would lead to disappearance of the

species with little chance to adapt. Freshwater species

typically show morphological adaptations, especially

for locomotion (e.g., del Hoyo et al. 1992). Webs

between toes, an efﬁcient tool to swim or dive, are

present in many groups like ducks (Anatidae), gulls

(Laridae)orcormorants(Phalacrocoracidae). Long

legs are quite common in order to walk in more or less

deep water, e.g., in herons (Ardeidae)orshorebirds

(Charadriiformes). Long ﬁngers, to walk on emergent

vegetation, can be found too in species like Jacanas

(Jacanidae). However, some species that are restricted

to wetlands or freshwater habitats do not have obvious

aquatic adaptations, such as in passerine species.

Finally, in addition to morphological adaptations some

waterbirds have developed physiological traits like the

salt gland, that is not only present in marine birds but

is also functional in some freshwater species like

ducks (Ash 1969).

Speciﬁc diversity

In 1990, Sibley and Alquist (1990) published the ﬁrst

bird taxonomical classiﬁcation based on a genetic

approach (DNA–DNA hybridization). This new clas-

siﬁcation drastically changed the vision of bird

phylogeny, for instance in putting penguins in the

same group as divers (Gaviidae)andfrigatebirds

(Fregatidae), while they were considered as a super-

order before. In the same way, the new world vultures

were now closer to storks (Ciconiidae) than to old

world vultures. This new genetic classiﬁcation contains

22 orders. New progresses in genetic techniques could

again change bird classiﬁcation in the future, i.e., DNA

barcoding using the cytochrome c oxidase sequence

(Hebert et al. 2004a, http://www.barcodingbirds.org/),

which is used for other organism like plants (Kress

et al. 2005), or insects (Hebert et al. 2004b), will be

generalized for birds in close future. New taxonomic

techniques can increase biodiversity by simply splitting

already known species into several new ones. This was

for example the case for four north-American bird

species (Tringa solitaria, Surnella magna, Vireo gilvus,

Cistothorus palustris), that could each be split into two

(Hebert et al. 2004a). In addition, new bird species are

still discovered each year in the world (55 new ones

from 1980 to 2006), especially in the tropics (van

Rootselaar 1999, 2002). A new species as large as an

albatross was described in 1983 in Amsterdam island,

even though the area was occupied by a permanent

scientiﬁc base since the sixties (Roux et al. 1983). Of

course, some species are also considered as having

disappeared (over 100 species since the 16th century),

among which some were freshwater birds, for instance

belonging to the Anatidae (ducks) or Rallidae (rails and

crakes) families (Birdlife international 2000).

Depending on the ﬁve most widely recognized

taxonomic lists, there are about 8,700–11,000 bird spe-

cies alive (Sibley & Monroe 1991; Devillers et al.

1993; American Ornithological Union 1998; Clements

2000; Howard & Moore 2003). The number of orders

varies between 22 and 31. In this work, we used the list

by Sibley and Monroe (1991), which contains 183

families for 30 orders.

Among the 30 orders in the Aves group, 14 have

members usin g freshwater, and two are strictly

restricted to this habitat (Gaviiform s and Podiceped-

iforms). At the family level, 45 of the 183 listed

families need freshwater habitat for one part of their

lifecycle, and 11 are comple tely dependent upon this

habitat (Table 1). Many of these families are mono-

speciﬁc, like the Opisthocomidae with the Hoatzin

(Opisthocomus hoazin) or the Balaenicipitidae with

the Shoebill ( Balaeniceps rex), or include few

species. The largest family here is the Podicipedidae

with

species.

Present distribution and main areas of endemicity

About 566 species, i.e., more than 5% of all bird

species, need freshwater to survive (Table 1). Birdlife

International (2000) recorded twice as many species

dependent on water; however the criteria used was far

less drastic than what we retained here.

Unsurprisingly, water-dependent species are in low

numbers in biogeographic regions where freshwater

620 Hydrobiologia (2008) 595:619–626

123

Table 1 Number of freshwater-dependent bird species per family (among families with at least one species dependent upon

freshwater) and per zoogeographic region

Order Family PA NA NT AT OL AU PAC ANT World

Anseriformes Anatidae 44 (50) 40 (47) 29 (37) 20 (21) 9 (11) 20 (26) 0 (1) 1 (1) 134 (164)

Anhimidae 3 (3) 3 (3)

Caprimulgiformes Caprimulgidae 0 (6) 0 (9) 1 (37) 0 (23) 0 (10) 0 (5) 1 (85)

Charadriiformes Charadriidae 4 (12) 0 (8) 3 (10) 4 (17) 1 (8) 1 (12) 13 (67)

Glareolidae 1 (4) 2 (7) 2 (5) 0 (1) 4 (17)

Jacanidae 1 (1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 2 (2) 1 (1) 8 (8)

Laridae 9 (16) 5 (35) 4 (21) 1 (16) 2 (13) 3 (19) 0 (10) 0 (2) 19 (97)

Recurvirostridae 1 (2) 3 (3) 3 (4) 0 (1) 2 (3) 3 (4) 1 (1) 9 (12)

Rostratulidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 (2)

Scolopacidae 24 (45) 19 (42) 3 (7) 3 (3) 0 (1) 0 (4) 0 (1) 43 (87)

Ciconiiformes Ardeidae 8 (15) 3 (14) 9 (20) 8 (19) 7 (16) 3 (9) 31 (67)

Balaenicipitidae 1 (1) 1 (1)

Ciconiidae 0 (2) 0 (1) 1 (3) 3 (7) 3 (7) 0 (1) 7 (19)

Scopidae 1 (1) 1 (1)

Threskiornithidae 3 (6) 2 (3) 8 (13) 4 (10) 3 (5) 3 (5) 17 (34)

Coraciiformes Alcedinidae 1(1) 3 (3) 2 (2) 11 (25) 0 (27) 0 (39) 0 (10) 14 (97)

Cuculiformes Cuculidae 0 (4) 0 (5) 0 (29) 1 (35) 0 (45) 0 (35) 1 (140)

Opisthocomidae 1 (1) 1 (1)

Falconiformes Accipitridae 3 (50) 3 (21) 1 (63) 4 (56) 4 (45) 1 (41) 0 (3) 10 (243)

Galliformes Phasianidae 0 (56) 0 (13) 0 (1) 2 (43) 0 (62) 2 (13) 1 (1) 4 (179)

Gaviiformes Gaviidae 5 (5) 5 (5) 5 (5)

Gruiformes Aramidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)

Gruidae 5 (9) 1 (2) 3 (3) 2 (2) 10 (15)

Heliornithidae 0 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 (3)

Rallidae 8 (11) 10 (13) 29 (46) 14 (29) 13 (23) 14 (36) 4 (10) 65 (133)

Passeriformes Cinclidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 (2) 1 (1) 5 (5)

Emberizidae 2 (38) 6 (151) 8 (664) 0 (6) 15 (834)

Estrildidae 1 (95) 0 (18) 2 (41) 0 (4) 3 (156)

Furnariidae 5 (239) 5 (239)

Hirundinidae 1 (8) 1 (10) 1 (26) 4 (42) 1 (7) 0 (5) 0 (1) 7 (93)

Malaconotidae 1 (50) 1 (50)

Motacillidae 2 (21) 0 (4) 0 (8) 1 (30) 1 (8) 0 (2) 3 (66)

Muscicapidae 2 (107) 0 (13) 0 (56) 0 (150) 10 (109) 2 (40) 0 (5) 11 (459)

Paridae 2 (24) 0 (10) 0 (23) 0 (10) 2 (67)

Ploceidae 17 (114) 0 (4) 17 (119)

Pycnonotidae 0 (6) 0 (75) 1 (58) 0 (1) 1 (140)

Sylviidae 18 (105) 0 (1) 16 (198) 4 (63) 0 (28) 0 (11) 36 (398)

Thamnophilidae 2 (199) 2 (199)

Timaliidae 2 (61) 0 (1) 0 (42) 1 (204) 0 (1) 3 (287)

Troglodytidae 0 (1) 1 (13) 4 (67) 4 (80)

Tyrannidae 0 (33) 10 (398) 10 (421)

Pelecaniformes Anhingidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 4 (4)

Pelecanidae 1 (2) 0 (2) 0 (1) 2 (2) 0 (1) 2 (8 )

Phalacrocoracidae 1 (9) 2 (6) 1 (7) 2 (4) 2 (4) 0 (12) 0 (1) 0 (3) 7 (39)

Hydrobiologia (2008) 595:619–626 621

123

habitats are rare, like in the Antarctic and in the

Paciﬁc islands 1 and 6 species, respectively (Table 1

and 2 and Fig. 1). It is also quite low in the Australian

region where freshwater habitats are submitted to

drastic climatic conditions, and in the Oriental region,

which is mostly covered by forests. The other

biogeographic regions each contain roughly the same

numbers of water-dependent species, between 116

and 154 (Fig. 1). Among the 183 families with water-

dependent species, only six are restricted to only one

biogeographic region (Anhimidae, Opisthocomidae,

Furnariidae, Balaenicipitidae, Scopidae, Malaconot-

idae); the ﬁrst three are in the Neotropics, and the

latter ones in the Afrotropics.

Table 1 continued

Order Family PA NA NT AT OL AU PAC ANT World

Podicipediformes Podicipedidae 5 (5) 8 (8) 9 (9) 5 (5) 3 (3) 3 (3) 19 (19)

Strigiformes Strigidae 1 (26) 0 (18) 0 (46) 1 (29) 1 (40) 0 (23) 0 (1) 3 (171)

Total 154 (708) 116 (498) 145 (2027) 138 (1188) 76 (816) 62 (412) 6 (60) 1 (6) 566 (5335)

In parentheses: Total number of bird species in the family including FW, marine and terrestrial. (in bold, families where all species

members are water-dependent). PA, Palaearctic; NA, Nearctic; NT, Neotropical; AT, Afrotropical ; OL, Oriental; AU, Australasia;

PAC, Paciﬁc Oceanic Islands; ANT, Antarctic region

Table 2 Number of genera including freshwater-dependent bird species per family (among families with at least one species

dependent upon freshwater) and per zoogeographic region

Order Family PA NA NT AT OL AU PAC ANT World

Anseriformes Anatidae 16 (17) 16 (17) 16 (17) 12 (13) 3 (4) 12 (14) 1 (1) 40 (46)

Anhimidae 2 (2) 2 (2)

Caprimulgiformes Caprimulgidae 1 (12) 1 (15)

Charadriiformes Charadriidae 3 (4) 4 (4) 2 (2) 1 (2) 1 (6) 5 (10)

Glareolidae 1 (2) 1 (4) 1 (3) 1 (5)

Jacanidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 (2) 2 (2) 1 (1) 6 (6)

Laridae 3 (7) 3 (7) 3 (6) 1 (5) 1 (2) 2 (6) 4 (13)

Recurvirostridae 1 (2) 2 (2) 2 (2) 1 (2) 2 (3) 1 (1) 2 (3)

Rostratulidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)

Scolopacidae 8 (12) 10 (16) 2 (2) 12 (21)

Ciconiiformes Ardeidae 6 (9) 3 (11) 8 (15) 5 (9) 4 (9) 3 (8) 10 (20)

Balaenicipitidae 1 (1) 1 (1)

Ciconiidae 1 (3) 3 (5) 3 (5) 4 (6)

Scopidae 1 (1) 1 (1)

Threskiornithidae 3 (5) 1 (2) 3 (7) 4 (6) 2 (3) 2 (3) 8 (14)

Coraciiformes Alcedinidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 3 (7) 4 (18)

Cuculiformes Cuculidae 1 (9) 1 (28)

Opisthocomidae 1 (1) 1 (1)

Falconiformes Accipitridae 3 (20) 3 (12) 1 (24) 3 (25) 3 (19) 1 (16) 5 (65)

Galliformes Phasianidae 2 (6) 1 (7) 1 (1) 2 (45)

Gaviiformes Gaviidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)

Gruiformes Aramidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)

Gruidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 (2) 1 (1) 2 (2)

Heliornithidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 (3)

Rallidae 5 (8) 6 (7) 11 (14) 8 (14) 7 (9) 7 (14) 2 (5) 17 (34)

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Approximately 10% of water-dependent bird

species (i.e., 58 species) can be considered to be

endemic. A batch of 12 and 10 endemic species

belong to the Anatidae and Rallidae families,

respectively, and eight families only have one

endemic species (Table 3). Among water-dependent

species, the proportion of endemic ones varies a lot

between families, reachin g more than 25% in

Podicipedidae (grebes) and Recurvirstridae (Avo-

cets and alias) (Fig. 2). Africa is especially rich in

endemic birds (20 species) (Fig. 3A), most of them

being found in Madagascar or on islands of the Gulf

of Guinea. In fact, islands concentrate the majority

of endemic species whatever the biogeographical

region, except in the Neotropics where many

endemic species are also found in the Andes,

another region with relatively remote areas (Fig. 3B

and 4).

Fig. 1 Number of freshwater-dependent species according to

biogeographic zones, with the percentage of waterbird species

represented in brackets. Some species can occur in more than

one biogeographic region

Table 2 continued

Order Family PA NA NT AT OL AU PAC ANT World

Passeriformes Cinclidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)

Emberizidae 1 (7) 4 (53) 6 (170) 10 (201)

Estrildidae 1 (20) 1 (11) 2 (30)

Furnariidae 3 (53) 3 (53)

Hirundinidae 1 (3) 1 (5) 1 (8) 2 (5) 1 (3) 3 (14)

Malaconotidae 1 (8) 1 (8)

Motacillidae 1 (3) 1 (4) 1 (2) 1 (5)

Muscicapidae 1 (20) 5 (23) 2 (16) 5 (69)

Paridae 1 (3) 1 (7)

Ploceidae 2 (17) 2 (17)

Pycnonotidae 1 (9) 1 (21)

Sylviidae 3 (15) 5 (44) 2 (14) 8 (61)

Thamnophilidae 2 (45) 2 (45)

Timaliidae 2 (14) 1 (36) 3 (53)

Troglodytidae 1 (7) 2 (15) 2 (16)

Tyrannidae 8 (102) 8 (102)

Pelecaniformes Anhingidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)

Pelecanidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)

Phalacrocoracidae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)

Podicipediformes Podicipedidae 2 (2) 4 (4) 4 (4) 2 (2) 2 (2) 2 (2) 6 (6)

Strigiformes Strigidae 1 (11) 1 (6) 1 (8) 2 (23)

Total 68 (170) 62 (151) 87 (512) 73 (224) 48 (163) 42 (112) 4 (7) 1 (1) 198 (1097)

In parentheses: Total number of bird genera in the area. (in bold, families where all species members are water-dependent). PA,

Palaearctic Region; NA, Nearctic Region; NT, Neotropical Region; AT, Afrotropical Region; OL, Oriental Region; AU, Australasian

Region; PAC, Paciﬁc region and Oceanic Islands, ANT, Antarctic Region

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123

Human-related issues

Man has had close relationships with birds for a long

time, probably before the Neolithic, be it for food, or

for metaphysical aspects. Bird feathers were used for

ornamental purposes by shamans, and birds were

considered as gods in the Egyptian civilization

(Horus is a falcon and Tho

t is an Ibis), among others

(e.g., south-American Indians). Following the exam-

ple of the mammals, bir ds also were early

domesticated. Chickens are an obvious case, but

waterbirds like ducks (Anas platyrhynchos , Cairina

moschata) and geese (Anser anser, Anser cygnoides)

were also domesticated. Nowadays, the metaphysical

Table 3 Number and

percentage of endemic

species according to

taxonomic family

Order Family No of endemic sp No of species Percentage (%)

Anseriformes Anatidae 12 164 7.3

Charadriiformes Jacanidae 1 8 12.5

Laridae 2 97 2.1

Recurvirostridae 31225

Scolopacidae 1 87 1.1

Ciconiiformes Ardeidae 4 67 6.0

Threskiornithidae 3 34 8.8

Coraciiformes Alcedinidae 2 97 2.1

Falconiformes Accipitridae 1 243 0.4

Galliformes Phasianidae 1 179 0.6

Gruiformes Gruidae 1 15 6.7

Rallidae 10 133 7.5

Passeriformes Emberizidae 3 834 0.4

Hirundinidae 1 93 1.1

Ploceidae 1 119 0.8

Sylviidae 3 398 0.8

Timaliidae 1 287 0.3

Troglodytidae 2 80 2.5

Podicipediformes Podicipedidae 62030

Fig. 2 Endemic rate in

freshwater-dependent

families

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123

aspects have tended to disappea r (except in ﬁrst

nations like in the Amazon where birds are still

related with ‘spirits’), and birds can only be consid-

ered as sources of food or pleasure. Wild birds are

mostly considered as food resources in third world

countries, whereas in northern countries these birds

are essentially considered as sources of pleasures

(leisure, hunting or bird watching).

Not surpris ingly, birds are also affected by human

activities, and many species are endangered or have

already disappeared (the Dodo Raphus cucullatus for

instance). According to Birdlife International (2000),

12% of total bird species are threatened, mainly by

human activities, though these can also have an

additive effect to intrinsic factors (small versus large

populations size or range use). The same proportion

Fig. 3 Number (left, A)

and proportion (right, B) of

endemic freshwater-

dependent bird species per

biogeographic region

Fig. 4 Species and generic diversity of freshwater (aquatic

and water dependent) birds by zoogeographic region: species

number/genus number. PA, Palaearctic Region; NA, Nearctic

Region; AT, Afrotropical Region; NT, Neotropical Region;

OL, Oriental Region; AU, Australasian Region; PAC, Paciﬁc

Region and oceanic islands, ANT, Antartic Region

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