Arya S.P.S. Introduction to Micrometeorology

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298 Index

layer, 12-13

ocean, 12-13, 18, 197-199

urban area, 241

volume, 14-15

Energy balance method, 191-194

Energy dissipation, 6, 120-121

Energy flux,

9-20,

49,

83,198-199,241,

281

ground

heat

flux, 10-20,

40-48,

241

latent heat,

9-20,

49,

198-199,241,281

radiation,

9-20,

21-36, 198-199,241

sensible heat,

9-20,

49, 83, 198-199,

241,281

Energy storage, 13-18, 197-199,241

crops, 16-18

forest, 16-18

oceanic mixed layer, 197-199

urban canopy, 241

Entrainment, 67

Euler's

equations, 92-93

Evaporation, 5, 10-11, 16-18, 183-196,

198

latent heat, 10-11, 16-18

pan, 189-190

process, 183-186

measurement, 189-195

water

bodies, 18, 198

Evapotranspiration, 16-17, 183-196

crops, 16-17

forest, 16-17

Exchange coefficient, 129-130, 152-153,

167-169, 184, 188, 280-284

heat, 129-130,

167-169,280-284

momentum, 129-130, 152-153, 167-169,

280-284

water

vapor, 129-130, 184

Exercises, 8, 19-20, 35-36, 46-48,

64-65,

84-86, 106-107, 121-122,

139-

140,155-156,179-181,195-196,

221-222,260-261,284-285

Extinction coefficient, 269-270

Fetch effect on waves, 201-202

Fick's

law, 183-184

First

law of thermodynamics, 51

Flow separation, 246-249, 253, 256-257

mechanism, 246-247

reattachment, 246-248

shear

layer, 246-249

stagnation point, 246-248

Flow zones, 246-259

cavity, 246-249

displacement, 251

inner layer, 251

mixing layer, 251

wake, 245-259

Fluid flow type, 87-122

inviscid, 87

laminar, 87-107

turbulent, 90-91

viscous, 87-107

Flux determination, 169-178, 189-195,

278-284

aerodynarnic

approach,

171-173, 194

energy balance, 10-14, 191-194

eddy

correlation method, 170-171, 190-

191

geostrophic departure, 174-176

gradient method, 171-173, 194

profile method, 173-174, 194-195

Flux-gradient relationships, 129-131, 144,

157-166,187-188

eddy diffusivity, 129--131, 144

mixing length, 131-133, 144

similarity, 133-139, 144, 157-166, 187-

188

Force

balance, 71-73

Forest

micro meteorology, 263-285

albedo, 269

energy flux, 280-283

radiation, 266-271

resistances, 264-265

temperature, 273-277

turbulence, 277-283

wind, 271-276

Friction,

2-6,

71-73

effect, 71-73

force, 6,

71-73,

92-93

veering, 73, 81

Friction velocity, 144-154, 157-160, 169-

178, 204-207, 218-220, 226, 264

Froude

number, 210, 255-258

Geostrophic,

68-73, 76-78,

147-148, 174-

176

balance, 68

departure,

147-148, 174-176

flow, 68-73

shear,

69-71,

veering,

69-71,

wind,

68-73, 76-78,

174-176

Gradient

transport

method, 171-173, 194, 281-284

relations, 128-133, 171-173, 184, 194

theory,

128-133,

184,281-284

Greenhouse

effect, 29

Heat

capacity,

13-15,38-48

Heat

flux,

9-20,

49,

83,118-119,126-129,

157-181,191-194,231-233,280-

284

sensible,

9-20,

49, 83, 118-119,

126-

129,

157-181,231-233

latent,

9-20,

49, 187,

191-194,283

soil, 10-20,

40-48

Heat

transfer

coefficient, 104-105,

167-

169,171,188,192,211-214,265-

266

Homogeneity, horizontal, 9, 12, 37,

75-76,

117, 128, 157

Humidity,

49-50,

52-54, 58-61,

188-196

diurnal variation,

60-64

profile, 58-61

specific,

49-50,

52-54,

188-196

Hydraulic

jump,

255-258

Hygrometer,

191

Inhomogeneities

surface, 12-13,

223-

261

land/water,

235-237

roughness, 224-230

rural/urban,

237-245

temperature,

231-246

topographic, 245-259

Instability, 109-114

dynamic, 109-114

gravitational, 109-114

inflexion point, 110-111

inviscid,

110-1\1

Kelvin-Helmholtz,

109-110

viscous, 110-112

Internal boundary layer, 224-237, 241-245

momentum,

224-230

Index 299

thermal, 231-237, 241-245

urban, 237-245

Inversion,

temperature,

57-61, 234-237,

244

elevated, 58, 234-237, 244

layer, 57-61, 234-237

surface, 58, 234-237, 243, 244

Kinetic energy,

6.90,

113-114,257

dissipation, 6,

90,113-114

generation, 113-114

turbulent, 113-114

Kinetic theory, 89

Laminar

flow, 88--107

boundary

layer, 99-103

channel, 88,

94-95

Ekman

layer,

95-99

jet,

99-100

wake, 99-100

Lapse

rate,

51-56,

dry adiabatic, 51-53

moist adiabatic,

53-54

pseudoadiabatic, 54

Latent

heat flux,

9-20,

49, 198-199,241,

281

Latent

heat

water,

5-6

Leaf

area

density, 266-268, 276

index, 266-268

Local

isotropy/similarity,

121

Longwave

radiation,

22-23,

29-33, 198-

199,269-271

atmospheric,

29-33,

198-199,269-271

terrestrial,

22-23, 29-33,

198-199,

269-

271

Low-level

jet,

78-80

Lysimeter,

189-190

Marine

atmospheric

boundary

layer,

60-

61, 197-222

air-sea

exchanges, 203-214

drag coefficient, 203-214

humidity,

60-61,

215-217

300 Index

temperature, 60-61, 215-217

turbulence, 218-220

winds, 203, 214-215

Mass exchange,

4-5

carbon dioxide,

4-5

pollutants,

4-5

water vapor,

4-5

Microclimatology,

3-4

Micrometeorology

applications,

6-7

experiments, 142-152, 161-166, 169-178

scope,

1-4

Mixed layer, 18, 57-61, 197-200, 241-245

Mixing

layer, 57, 87

length, 131-133, 144, 154, 160-161,272

ratio, 52-54

Molecular analogy, 129-133

Molecular diffusion/exchange, 103-105,

127, 129-131, 183-186

Momentum

conservation, 91-93, 123-128,271

exchange/flux,

3-6,

118-119, 126-129,

152-153,

157-181,203-214,226-

227, 271-273, 279-284

Monin-Obukhov

similarity theory, 157-

169, 177-178, 213-220, 264

Navier-Stokes

equations, 92-93, 123-124

Nocturnal boundary layer, 34, 58-59, 74,

78-80

Nonhomogeneous boundary layer, 223-261

height/thickness, 228-230, 232-237,

242-245

shear

stress profile, 225-226

temperature profile, 232

topography, 245-259

wind profile, 225-228, 232

Numerical modeling/simulation, 124-125,

128

full-turbulence, 124

higher

order

closure, 128

large-eddy, 124

Oasis effect, 16

Obukhov's

length, 158-159, 187

Oceanography, 7

Ocean surface,

see a/so sea surface

energy balance, 18, 197-200

fluxes, 18, 197-200, 203-214

mixed layer, 18

roughness, 204-207

temperature, 38, 197-200

waves, 200-203

Orographic effect, 54

Pasquill's stability classes, 56-57

Penman method, 192-194

Planck's law, 22

Planetary boundary layer,

see boundary

layer

Plant cover, see vegetation

Potential energy, 113, 257-258

Potential evaporation. 184-186, 190-193

Potential temperature, 51

Prandtl number, 104-105

Pressure, atmospheric, 50-53, 68-73,

92-

gradient, 68-73, 92-94

reference, 51

Problems, 8, 19-20, 35-36, 46-48, 64-65,

84-86, 106-107, 121-122, 139-

140,155-156,179-181,195-196,

221-222, 260-261, 284-285

Profile method, 173-175, 194-195

Radiation,

21-36,198-199,269-271

diffuse, 28-29, 31-33

longwave atmospheric, 29-33, 198-199,

269-271

longwave terrestrial, 22-23, 29-33, 198-

199, 269-271

net,

9-20,

30-35, 198-199

reflected, 27-28, 30-33

shortwave, 22-29, 36, 198-199, 269-271

solar, 22-29, 31-33, 198-199

sky, 28-29

Radiation balance/budget, 21-36, 198-199

crop, 32

lake, 33

ocean, 18, 198-199

Radiation laws, 21-24, 269

Beer-Bouguer

law, 269

Kirchoff's law, 24

Planck's

law, 22

Rayleigh's scattering law, 26

Stefan-Boltzmann

law, 21-22, 24

Wien's law, 22

Radiative cooling/warming, 3J,

33-35,49

Radiative properties, 23-25, 198-199

absorptivity, 23-24,

29-30

albedo, 23-25, 27-33, J98-199

emissivity, 23-25,

29-30

reflectivity, 23-25, 27-33

transmissivity, 23

Radiometer,

37-38

Rayleigh number, 105-J06, II J

Reference, 5J, 141, 207

density, 5J

height, 14J, 207

pressure, 5J

temperature, 5J

Reflectivity, see albedo

Resistance, aerodynamic, 264-265

Reynolds averaging, 125-J28

equations of

mean

motion, 125-128

rules, J25

Reynolds number, 99-104, llO-114, 134,

247

critical,

llO-ll4

independence, 247

similarity, 134

Richardson number, 75, 78-79, I

ll-ll4,

158-J66

bulk, 168, 213, 256

criterion,

III

- II 4

critical, 75,

78-79,

llJ-ll4

Roughness,

142-154,204-207,224-246

change, 224-246

effect, J42-154, 242

land surface, 148-15J

sea

surface, 149, 204-207

Roughness characteristics, 67, 142-154,

204-207

density, 148-151

element, J48-151

height, 144-152

length/parameter, 144-152, 204-207

Scales, characteristic, 136-138, 158-J60,

178, 187-188, 219-220

length, 90, 136-138, 158-J60, 187

Index 301

temperature, 136-138, 160, 188,219-220

time, 90

velocity, 136-138, 158-160, 178, 188,

219-220

Scale

turbulence, IJ9-121, 133

large-eddy, 120--121, 133

macroscale, 120-121, 133

microscale, 120--12I

Sea breeze, 231

Sea surface, see also ocean surface

energy balance, 18, 197-200

flux, 18, 197-200, 203-214

roughness, 204--207

temperature, 38, 197-200

waves, 200-203

Shearing stress,

89-90,

94-103,

IJ9,

152-

153, 169-178

turbulent,

ll9,

152-153, 169-178

viscous, 89-90, 94-103

Shortwave radiation, see radiation

Sign convention, II

Similarity, 133-139, 157-169, 177-178

hypothesis, 137-139, 157-158

scaling, 136-139, 157-158

theory, 137-139, 157-169, 177-178

Sky view factor, 277

Soil properties,

37-48

albedo, 24-25

emissivity, 24-25

heat transfer, I J, 40-48

moisture content, 38, 41

moisture flow rate, 185

temperature, 37-48

thermal conductivity, 40-48

thermal diffusivity, 40-48

Solar

constant,

25-26

Solar radiation,

25-29

absorption,

26-27

depletion,

26-28

insolation, 26-27

reflection,

27-28

scattering,

25-29

Specific heat,

13-15,40-44,51

Specific humidity, 49-65, 77, 188-196,217

distribution,

60-61,

77, J88-196, 217

diurnal variation,

62-64

Stability,

54-56,

74-81,

109-ll2

analysis, II 1-112

dynamic/hydrodynamic, 109-112

effect, 74-81

302 Index

gravitational,

54-56

static, 54-56, 109

Stability parameter

bulk Richardson number, 168, 213, 256

Monin-Obukhov,

158-178, 187-188,

263-264

Richardson number, 75,

78-79,111-114,

158-166

static, 55

Stefan-Boltzmann

law, 21-24

Streamline

flow, 87-104

pattern, 248

Subsidence motion, 50

Subsurface medium, 11, 37-48

heat flux,

II,

40-48

moisture content, 41

temperature, 37-48

Surface

drag, 152-153, 167-179

energy budget,

9-12,

15-20, 169-170

fluxes,

9-20,

83, 152-153, 167-179

inhomogeneity, 12-13, 223-261

stress, 152-153, 167-179, 225-226

wave, 200-203

Surface layer,

2-3,

141-152, 157-169,

186-188,263-285

flux-profile relations, 141-152, 160-169,

186-188, 263-266

humidity profile, 188-189

similarity theory, 143-152, 157-169

temperature profile, 160-169

turbulence, 177-180

velocity profile, 141-152, 160-169

Surface roughness,

see also roughness,

142-153

effect, 142-153

step change, 224-230

Surface temperature, 21-24, 29, 37-38,

44-45, 197-241

apparent, 29, 37-38

change, 231-237

equivalent blackbody, 29, 37-38

sea, 38, 197-200

skin, 37-38, 44-45

urban, 238-241

Temperature, air, 49-65, 76-79, 166, 175,

216, 275-276, 282

inversion, 57-58, 76-79

lapse rate, 51-56

modification, 231-246

profile, 58-62,

76-79,166,175,216,

275-276, 282

Thermal properties, 40-48, 51, 103-105

coefficient of expansion, 105

conductivity, 40-48

heat capacity,

13-15,38-48,

specific heat, 13-15. 40-44, 51

thermal diffusivity, 40-48, 103-105

Thermal wind, 69-71, 76

Thermodynamic relations, 50-55

Clausius-Clapeyron equation, 52

equation of state, 50-55

first law, 51

hydrostatic equation, 50-55

Poisson equation, 51

potential temperature, 51-52

static stability, 54-56

virtual temperature, 53-56

Topographic effects on flow, 245-259

Transition

laminar-turbulent flow, 109-113

periods, 12

rough-smooth,

225-228

smooth-rough,

225-228

turbulent-laminar flow, 113-114

Transpiration, 185-186

Turbidity, 26-27

Turbulence,

3-6,

90-91, 108-122, 123-140,

153-154, 177-178

characteristics, 114-115

closure problem, 128

fundamentals, 108-122

planetary boundary layer, 153-154

scales, 115

standard deviation, 153-154, 177-178,

218-220, 278

surface layer,

2-6,153-154,177-178,

218-220

theory, 123-140

transition, 109-113

variance, 117-118, 127, 177-178,278

Turbulence intensity, 118,277-278

Turbulent flux/transport,

3-6,

117-119,

126-129,152-153,157-181,279-

283

heat,

3-6,118-119,126-129,157-181,

280-282

mass,

3-6,

118-119

momentum,

3-6,118-119,126-129,

152-153,

157-181,279-281

pollutant,

3-6,118-119

water

vapor,

3-6,

183-196

Turbulent kinetic energy, 113-114, 120

buoyancy generation, 113-114

dissipation, 113-115, 120

shear

production, 113-114

transport, 113-114

Urban area, 237-252

building wakes, 245-252

energy budget, 241

land use, 238-239

surface roughness, 242

Urban boundary layer, 241-245

Urban

heat

island, 238-241

intensity, 238-241

Urban

plume, 237-238, 244

Vapor

pressure, see water

vapor

pressure

Vegetation, 263-285

albedo, 269

canopy architecture, 266-268

carbon

dioxide exchange, 276

energy flux, 280-283

energy storage, 16-18

radiation budget, 266-271

temperature, 273-277

wind,271-276

Velocity profile,

69-81,

141-152, 166-167,

173-174,215,

224-228, 246-248,

271-276

logarithmic law,

143-152,225-230

power

law, 141-145

Viscosity, 88-90, 98

dynamic, 89

effects,

88-90

kinematic, 89

Viscous flow, 87-107, 199

sublayer, 127, 199

von

Karman

constant, 144

Vortex, 247-252

horseshoe, 249, 252

von Karman, 249

Index 303

Wake, 245-259

cavity, 246-249, 253

far wake, 249-250, 253-259

near

wake, 249-250, 253

Water

surface, see

ocean

surface

Water

vapor, 29-30, 49-50, 52-54, 59-63,

188-196,275-276

absorption of radiation, 29-30

mixing ratio,

52-54

pressure, 52-54,

62-63,

192-194,275-

276

specific humidity, 49-50, 52-54, 59-63,

188-196

Wave, 44-45, 200--203, 205-207

amplitude, 44-45, 202

development stage, 205-207

frequency,

44-45,

200-203

period, 44-45, 200-203

phase speed, 44-45, 200-203, 205-207

spectrum 201

Wavelength, 21-24, 200-201

Wien's law, 22

Wind direction,

69-86

backing, 70-73

diurnal variation, 81-83

profile, 77

shear, 69-73, 77, 80-81

veering,

69-73,

80-81

Wind distribution,

67-86,141-148,166-

175, 214-215

measurement, 75-86, 176

over

water, 203, 214-215

planetary boundary layer,

75-80

surface layer, 141-148, 166-167, 174-

175, 214-215, 225-230

Wind hodograph,

!l0-81,

96-99

Wind shear,

69-71,

76, 160-169

dimensionless, 160-169

geostrophic,

69-71,

Wind

speed,

69-86,

141-148, 166-175

diurnal variation, 81-82

profile,

75-86,141-148,166-167,174-

175

Wind veering, 69-73, 80-81

Zenith angle,

24-26

Zero-plane displacement, 150-52, 263-264

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International Geophysics Series

EDITED

VAN

MIEGHEM

(1959-1976)

ANTON

HALES

(1972-1979)

WILLIAM

DONN

Lamont-Doherty

Geological Observatory

Columbia University

Palisades,

New

York

(1980-1986)

Current

Editors

RENATA

DMOWSKA

Division

Applied

Science

Harvard University

JAMES

HOLTON

Department

Atmospheric

Sciences

University

Washington

Seattle, Washington

Volume 1 BENO

GUTENBERG.

Physics

the

Earth's

Interior. 1959*

Volume 2

JOSEPH

CHAMBERLAIN.

Physics

the

Aurora

and

Airglow. 1961*

Volume 3 S. K.

RUNCORN

(ed.).

Continental

Drift. 1962

Volume 4 C. E. JUNGE. Air

Chemistry

and

Radioactivity. 1963

Volume 5

ROBERT

FLEAGLE

AND

JOOST

BUSINGER.

An Introduction to Atmo-

spheric

Physics.

1963*

Volume 6 L. DUFOUR AND R. DEFAY.

Thermodynamics

Clouds. 1963

Volume 7 H. U. ROLL.

Physics

the

Marine

Atmosphere.

1965

"Out

print.

305

306 International Geophysics Series

Volume 8

RICHARD

CRAIG.

The

Upper

Atmosphere: Meteorology and Physics. 1965

Volume 9 WILLIS L.

WEBB.

Structure

the

Stratosphere

and Mesosphere. 1966*

Volume 10

MICHELE

CAPUTO.

The Gravity Field of the

Earth

from Classical and Modern

Methods.

1967

Volume 11 S.

MATSUSHITA

AND

WALLACE

CAMPBELL

(eds.). Physics of Geomagnetic

Phenomena.

(In two volumes.) 1967

Volume 12 K. YA.

KONDRATYEV.

Radiation in the Atmosphere. 1969

Volume 13 E.

PALMEN

AND

C. W.

NEWTON.

Atmospheric Circulation Systems: Their

Structure

and

Physical Interpretation. 1969

Volume 14

HENRY

RISHBETH

AND

OWEN K.

GARRIOTT.

Introduction to Ionospheric

Physics. 1969

Volume 15 C. S.

RAMAGE.

Monsoon

Meteorology. 1971*

Volume 16

JAMES

HOLTON.

Introduction

to Dynamic Meteorology. 1972*

Volume 17 K. C. YEH

AND

C. H. LIU.

Theory

of Ionospheric Waves. 1972

Volume 18 M. I.

BUDYKO.

Climate and Life. 1974

Volume 19

MELVIN

STERN.

Ocean Circulation Physics. 1975

Volume 20 J. A.

JACOBS.

The

Earth's

Core. 1975*

Volume 21

DAVID

MILLER.

Water

at the Surface of the Earth: An Introduction to

Ecosystem

Hydrodynamics.

1977

Volume 22

JOSEPH

CHAMBERLAIN.

Theory

Planetary Atmospheres: An Introduction

Their

Physics and Chemistry. 1978*

Volume 23

JAMES

HOLTON.

Introduction

to Dynamic Meteorology, Second Edition.

1979

Volume 24

ARNETT

DENNIS.

Weather

Modification by Cloud Seeding. 1980

Volume 25

ROBERT

FLEAGLE

AND

JOOST

BUSINGER.

An Introduction to Atmo-

spheric Physics,

Second

Edition. 1980

Volume 26 Kuo-NAN LIOU. An

Introduction

to Atmospheric Radiation. 1980

Volume 27

DAVID

MILLER.

Energy

at the Surface of the Earth: An Introduction to the

Energetics of

Ecosystems.

1981

Volume 28

HELMUT

LANDSBERG.

The

Urban

Climate. 1981

Volume 29 M. I.

BUDYKO.

The

Earth's

Climate: Past and

Future.

1982

"Out

of print.

International Geophysics Series 307

Volume 30

ADRIAN

E. GILL.

Atmosphere-Ocean

Dynamics. 1982

Volume 31

PAOLO

LANZANO.

Deformations

Elastic

Earth.

1982

Volume 32

RONALD

MERRILL

AND

MICHAEL

W. McELHINNY. The

Earth's

Magnetic

Field: Its

History,

Origin

and

Planetary

Perspective.

1983

Volume 33 JOHN S. LEWIS AND

RONALD

G. PRINN. Planets and

Their

Atmospheres:

Origin

and

Evolution.

1983

Volume 34 ROLF

MEISSNER.

The

Continental

Crust:

Geophysical

Approach.

1986

Volume 35 M. U.

SAGITOV,

B. BODRI, V. S.

NAZARENKO,

AND

KH. G.

TADZHlDINOV.

Lunar

Gravimetry.

1986

Volume 36

JOSEPH

CHAMBERLAIN

AND

DONALD

M. HUNTEN.

Theory

Planetary

Atmospheres:

Introduction

Their

Physics

and

Chemistry,

Second

Edi-

tion. 1987

Volume 37 J. A.

JACOBS.

The

Earth's

Core,

Second

Edition. 1987

Volume 38 J. R. APEL. Principles

Ocean

Physics. 1987

Volume 39

MARTIN

A. UMAN.

The

Lightning Discharge. 1987

Volume 40 DAVID G.

ANDREWS,

JAMES

R. HOLTON, AND

CONWAY

LEOVY.

Middle

Atmosphere

Dynamics.

1987

Volume 41 PETER

WARNECK.

Chemistry

the

Natural

Atmosphere.

1988

Volume 42 S. PAL ARYA.

Introduction

Micrometeorology.

1988