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the earthing resistances of the stations and an N × N
network admittance matrix Y
n
determined by the
transmission line resistances. By utilising these matrices,
it is possible to derive the following formula for the N ×
1 column matrix I
e
whose elements are GIC flowing into
(from) the Earth at the stations:
I
e
= (1+Y
n
Z
e
)
J
(1)
If the stations are distant enough, making the
influence of GIC at one station on the voltages at other
stations negligible, Z
e
is diagonal with the elements
equalling the station earthing resistances For additional
details, we refer, for example, to [6,7,8]. In equation (1),
the symbol 1 refers to an N × N unit matrix, and the N ×
1 column matrix J
e
includes the input from the
geovoltages obtained by integrating the geoelectric field
between the stations. Generally, the geoelectric field is
rotational making the integration path-dependent, and the
geovoltages must be computed along the transmission
lines, e.g. [9,10]. However, it should be noted that a
spatially uniform geoelectric field, which is often
assumed to get an overview of the GIC flow in a
network, is irrotational implying an independence of the
choice of the path in the computation of geovoltages.
Equation (1) shows that if the earthings are perfect, i.e.
Z
e
= 0, I
e
and J
e
are equal.
When applying equation (1) to a three-phase power
network, the three phases are usually, including this
paper, treated as one circuit element, whose resistance is
one third of that of a single phase. Correspondingly, a
GIC value in a circuit element is three times the current
in a single conductor. The (total) earthing resistances of
the stations are often, including this paper, defined to
consist of the actual earthing resistances, of the
transformer resistances, and of any other resistances in
the earthing leads of transformer neutrals with all these
resistances connected in series.
A simple formula for GIC in transmission lines also
exists [6,7]. Regarding scientific and physical
significance, GIC between the network and the Earth and
in the lines are equivalent, but in practice, the former are
more important because they are responsible for the
possible transformer saturation. Moreover, measured
GIC data are usually collected in earthing leads of
transformer neutrals [4].
Inaccuracies in power network data
Besides the horizontal geoelectric field, the
following power network data are needed for the second
part of a GIC calculation [11]:
-Coordinates of the stations
-Total earthing resistances of the stations
-Transmission line resistances
-Network topology and configuration
-Precise information of the connections at the stations
-Information of possible series capacitors
The calculation of GIC from the input data is based
on Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws. Thus, in principle, the
calculation is exact. However, in practice, the geoelectric
field values suffer from approximations, and the power
network data also include inaccuracies and
shortcomings. The latter can be caused by difficulties in
disclosing confidential network information or simply by
insufficient knowledge, and they concern uncertainties in
station locations, unknown resistance values,
approximations when considering autotransformers,
undocumented connections or disconnections of
transmission lines, etc. Consequently the second part of a
GIC calculation remains approximate as well.
It can be shown that uncertainties in earthing
resistance data of even tens of per cent, as well as
inaccuracies of station locations in the kilometre range,
are generally not critical for calculated GIC values in a
power grid [11,12]. This is particularly true if average
values over all sites of the network are considered.
The study presented in [11] indicates that, even
though the overall average impact of a connection or
disconnection of one or two transmission lines on GIC in
a power grid is not large, inadequate knowledge of
connections and disconnections can lead to totally
incorrect calculated GIC values at some sites and thus, in
the worst case, to completely inappropriate
countermeasures for avoiding GIC problems.
Values of possible non-zero off-diagonal elements
of the matrix Z
e
, which describe the interaction between
the stations of a power network, are not easy to be
determined. Fortunately, both [12] and [13] support that
the effects of non-zero off-diagonal elements on GIC
values are not large. Thus, probably, if necessary, Z
e
may be regarded as diagonal without getting unusably
erroneous results.
GIC can naturally flow throughout a galvanically-
connected network. Thus, an exact GIC calculation
would require the whole network to be taken into
account. However, the usual situation is that a GIC study
is focussed on a limited area only. It is shown in [14,15]
that GIC do not flow over very long distances in a power
grid. This means that, in a practical study, we need not
extend the network considered far beyond the area of
interest, which, of course, simplifies the calculations.
Although equation (1) looks simple in the particular
matrix form, it includes a lot of parameters coupled together
in complicated ways when a real power network is
considered. Therefore, mathematically precise analytic
investigations of the effects of inaccuracies in power
network data are not possible in practice. The above-
mentioned conclusions of the effects are also based on
numerical studies. The old Finnish 400 kV power network
introduced as a GIC calculation test model in [8] is suitable
for investigating effects of inaccuracies in network data on
GIC values and for testing different GIC calculation
algorithms. It consists of 17 stations and 19 transmission
lines being thus large enough to be realistic but not too large
to unnecessarily complicate GIC computations.