Yeang K., Woo L. Dictionary of Ecodesign: An Illustrated Reference

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The most commonly used batteries are por-

table cadmium, lead–acid, automotive, indus-

trial, and disposable ones. Disposable batteries

are known as dry batteries and cannot be

recharged. Because of their toxicity, disposable

batteries increase pollutant hazards in landﬁlls.

In the USA alone, 84,000 tons of alkaline bat-

teries are thrown away annually. AA, AAA, C,

D, and 9-volt batteries that power electronic

games, toys, portable audio equipment, clocks,

smoke detectors, and various other household

items comprise 20% of the hazardous materials

households produce each year across the USA.

Many countries have already passed laws that

prohibit dumping of spent batteries into landﬁlls.

Programs to protect nature from the often toxic

substances contained in batteries were sched-

uled to be enacted in all 25 EU countries by

2008. The regulation requires 19 of the EU’s25

members to set up programs for collecting spent

consumer batteries. Austria, Belgium, Germany,

France, the Netherlands, and Sweden already

have such systems in place. The law bans some

portable cadmium batteries and prohibits dump-

ing in landﬁlls or burning of automotive and

industrial batteries, most of which are already

collected. The EU wants to ensure all such bat-

teries, which make up about 86% of the market,

are collected. By 2012, a quarter of all batteries

sold must be collected once they run out. By

2016, the target will rise to 45%. Distributors

will be required to take used batteries back at

no charge. The rules also determine how bat-

teries must be recycled once collected. Battery

producers and distributors will bear the cost of

most of the bill for implementing the recycling.

Battery electric vehicle (BEV) A type of

hybrid vehicle engine. It uses chemical energy

stored in rechargeable battery packs, and an

electric motor and motor controller instead of

an internal combustion engine. Some confusion

arises because the industry often refers to BEVs

when it means electric cars.

The hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) uses both

an electric motor and an internal combustion

engine. It is not considered a pure BEV because

it operates in a charge-sustaining mode. See

also:

Hybrid electric vehicle; Hybrid engine

Battery, sugar Recently developed, the sugar

battery is an environmentally friendly proto-

type battery that runs on sugars and can gen-

erate enough electricity to power a music player

and a pair of speakers. The bio-battery’s casing

is made of a vegetable-based plastic. It mea-

sures 1.5 inches (3.9 cm) along each edge, and

works by pouring sugar solution into the unit,

where enzymes break it down to generate

electricity. Current tests show an output of 50

milliwatts. It is still in development for eventual

commercial use.

Beadwall A form of movable insulation that

uses tiny polystyrene beads blown into the

space between two window panes. Polystyrene

is a nonbiodegradable plastic. An insulation

substitute made from plant-based plastics would

decrease the adverse effects of synthetic polymers

on the environment.

Beam radiation Solar radiation that is not

scattered by dust or water droplets.

Beaufort scale Measures wind speed on a

scale from 0–12. Zero is the lowest, calmest

wind speed of 19 km/h or less; 12 is the

highest, hurricane-force wind speed of 118 km/h

or more (see Table 1).

Bedrock Consolidated rock.

BEES See:

Building for Economic and Environ-

mental Stability

Beijing Agreement 1999 Amendment to the

Montreal Protocol. See also:

Montreal Protocol

on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

28 Battery electric vehicle (BEV)

Benthic Occurring at or near the bottom of a

body of water.

Benthic organisms Also known as benthos.

Organisms, including worms, clams, and crus-

taceans that live at the bottom of freshwater and

marine ecosystems.

Bentonite Sodium-rich volcanic ash that can

be used as a substitute for regular cement, which

has chlorides and emits carbon. Because it

expands when wet and can absorb several times

its dry weight in water, it is used in drilling mud

in the oil and gas well-drilling industries, as a

sealant for spent nuclear fuel, for quarantining

metal pollutants of groundwater, and as a base

liner for landﬁlls and slurry walls. Its waterproof

characteristics work well in below-grade walls

and in forming other impermeable barriers.

Benzene (C

) Major soil contaminant and

toxic chemical. A colorless liquid with a sweet

odor, it evaporates into the air very quickly and

dissolves slightly in water. It is highly ﬂammable,

and is formed from both natural processes and

human activities. It ranks in the top 20 chemi-

cals for production volume in the USA. It is

used to make other chemicals, which are used

to make plastics, resins, and nylon and synthetic

ﬁbers. It is also used to make some types of

rubber, lubricants, dyes, detergents, drugs, and

pesticides.

Table 1 Beaufort scale

Beaufort

number

Wind speed Description Wave height Sea

conditions

Land

conditionskm/h mph m ft

0 <1 <1 Calm 0 0 Flat Calm

11–51–3 Light air 0.1 0.33 Ripples, no

crests

Wind

motion

visible

26–11 3–7 Light breeze 0.2 0.66 Small

wavelets

Leaves rustle

312–19 7–10 Gentle

breeze

0.6 2.0 Large

wavelets

Leaves in

motion

420–28 13–17 Moderate

breeze

1.0 3.3 Small waves Small

branches

move

529–38 18–24 Fresh breeze 2.0 6.6 Moderate

waves

Small trees

sway

639–49 34–40 Strong

breeze

3.0 9.9 Large waves,

foam

Large

branches

move

750–61 31–38 High wind,

near gale

4.0 13.1 Sea heaps

Whole trees

in motion

862–74 39–46 Fresh gale 5.5 18.0 Breaking

crests

Twigs

broken

975–88 47–54 Strong gale 7.0 23.0 High waves Large

branches

break

10 89–102 55–63 Whole gale/

storm

9.0 29.5 Very high

waves

Trees

uprooted

11 103–117 64–72 Violent

storm

11.5

37.7

Extreme

waves

Widespread

damage

12 >118 >73 Hurricane

force

>14 >46 Huge waves Widespread

damage

Benzene (C

) 29

Industrial processes are the main source of ben-

zene in the environment. It can pass into the air

from water and soil, and can attach to rain or snow

and be carried back down to the ground. It breaks

down more slowly in water and soil, and can pass

through the soil into underground water. Benzene

does not build up in plants or animals. Studies have

shown that plants remove benzene from the air,

along with formaldehyde, and airborne microbes.

Natural sources of benzene include volca-

noes and forest ﬁres. Benzene is also a natural

part of crude oil, gasoline, and cigarette smoke.

See also:

Williams alpha diversity index

Bioenergy 1. Renewable sources of energy,

such as the Sun’s energy stored in plant matter

and animal waste (known as biomass). Biomass

fuel sources are considered renewable because

they replenish themselves more quickly than the

sources of fossil fuels.

2. Application of technology to biomass

resources to produce energy-related products,

including electricity; liquid, solid, and gaseous

fuels; heat, chemicals, and other materials. See

also:

Biomass fuel; Biomass electricity

Bioengineering Science on which all bio-

technological applications are based. Often refers

to genetic engineering. See also:

Biotechnology

Bioenhancing plastics Plastic materials that

carry additives to stimulate plant growth, pre-

vent erosion in arid climates, and carry plant

seeds embedded in growth stimulants.

Rope 3–14 months

Orange peels 6 months

Wool socks 1–5 years

Cigarette ﬁlters 1–12 years

Tetrapaks (plastic

composite milk

cartons)

5 years

Plastic bags 10–20 years

Leather shoes 25–40 years

Nylon fabric 30–40 years

Tin cans 50–100 years

Aluminum cans 80–100 years

Plastic six-pack

holder rings

450 years

Diapers and sanitary

napkins

500–800 years

Plastic bottles nonbiodegradeable

Styrofoam cup nonbiodegradeable

32 Biodegradable plastics

Bioethanol See: Ethanol

Bioﬁlter Indoor vegetation serves as a bioﬁlter

to improve internal air quality (IAQ) by elim-

inating formaldehyde, benzene, and airborne

microbes, and by absorbing carbon dioxide and

releasing oxygen. Some of the best plants for

bioﬁltering are the areca palm golden pothos,

rubber plant, English ivy, spider plant, and

Boston fern. See also:

Bamboo

Biofuel See: Biomass fuel

Biogas Combustible gas produced from the

anaerobic decomposition of organic material

in a landﬁll. Material is primarily methane,

carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulﬁde. See also:

Biomass fuel

Biogasiﬁca tion Process of decomposing biomass

with anaerobic bacteria to produce biogas.

Biogenic Produced by the actions of living

organisms.

Biogenic hydrocarbons Naturally occurring

compounds, including volatile organic com-

pounds (VOCs) that are emitted from trees and

vegetations. High-VOC-emitting tree species

such as eucalyptus can contribute to smog for-

mation. Species-speciﬁc biogenic emission rates

may inﬂuence the selection of trees for large-

scale planting, especially in areas with high

ozone concentrations.

Biogeochemical cycle Movement through the

Earth’s system—atmosphere, hydrosphere,

lithosphere, and biosphere—of key chemical

constituents essential to life: carbon, nitrogen,

oxygen, and phosphorus.

Biogeoﬁlter system Experimental system that

treats both wastewater and sewage. This system

takes the nitrogen and phosphorus still

remaining after septic tank treatment and uses it

as a hydroponic solution to grow plants. The

plants absorb the decomposed nitrogen and

phosphorus, thereby cleaning the water of these

pollutants. See also:

Hydroponic

Biogeographical area A region or ecosystem

that has unique biological, water, and land

characteristics.

Biohazard Organisms and/or microorganisms,

such as bacteria and viruses, that are a threat to

human health. Medical waste, such as toxins,

can also have an adverse effect on human and

animal health.

Biointegration Fundamental principle of ecode-

sign, based on the concept of biological integrity.

Its basic premise is to design the built environment

to integrate benignly and seamlessly with the nat-

ural environment, which includes the biosphere.

Biological aerated ﬁlter (BAF) Wastewater

treatment process that uses active biomass attached

to ﬁxed media in an aerobic environment to

remove contaminants.

Biological contaminants Also known as micro-

biologicals or microbials. Living organisms, or

agents derived from them, that can be inhaled

and may cause many types of health problem.

Biological integrity Balanced ecosystem in

which an environment can maintain a balanced,

integrated community of organisms.

Biological oxygen demand See:

Biochemical

oxygen demand (BOD)

Biological toilet See: Composting toilet

Biomarker 1. Measure used to identify a toxic

effect in an individual organism; it can also be

used in extrapolation between species.

Biomarker 33

2. Indicator of an event or condition in a

biological system or sample that provides a

measure of exposure, effect, or susceptibility.

Biomass Any organic matter, particularly cellu-

losic or lignocellulosic matter, which is available

on a renewable or recurring basis. May include

trees, plants, pulp and paper operation residue,

plant ﬁber, agriculture and forestry wastes, urban

wood wastes, landﬁll wastes, and animal wastes.

Biomass resources also include land and water

crops grown solely for energy purposes, known

as energy crops. In ecomimetic ecodesign, the

imitation/created ecosystem should include biotic

and abiotic parts to form a balanced whole. See

also:

Ecomimicry; Energy crops

Biomass electricity Use of organic biomass as

the feedstock or source of fuel. There are a

number of ways to generate electricity from

biomass: i) direct-ﬁred or conventional steam, ii)

pyrolysis, iii) co-ﬁring, iv) biomass gasiﬁcation,

v) anaerobic digestion, vi) landﬁll gas collection,

and vii) modular systems.

 Direct-ﬁred or conventional steam boilers

burn bioenergy feedstocks directly to pro-

duce steam, which in turn creates electricity.

 Pyrolysis The process in which biomass is

combusted at high temperatures and decom-

posed in the absence of oxygen. See:

Pyrolysis

 Co-ﬁring combines biomass with coal to

generate energy. The biomass used in this

process is usually woody and herbaceous,

such as poplar, willow, or switchgrass.

 Biomass gasiﬁcation Heat conversion of solid

biomass into a ﬂammable gaseous form, syngas.

Can be used in a combined-cycle gas turbine

or another power-conversion technology such

as a coal power plant. The biogas is cleaned

and ﬁltered to remove problem chemical

compounds, and can be used in power-genera-

tion systems called combined cycles, which

combine gas turbines and steam turbines to

produce electricity. See:

Biomass gasiﬁcation;

Gasiﬁcation

 Anaerobic digestion Biological process in

which methane, released by the interactions of

bacteria and archaea, is contained and used

to create energy. See:

Anaerobic decomposition

 Landﬁll gas By-product of the decomposition of

solid waste. Consists of 50% methane, 45%

, and 4% nitrogen; uses technology similar

to anaerobic digestion to generate electricity.

 Modular systems use some of the same tech-

nologies as the methods above but are suited

to much smaller-scale use, such as in villages,

farms, and small industry. They have great

potential for use in developing countries, where

biomass is abundant and electricity is scarce.

Biomass feedstock Term used to describe

large quantities of biomass source.

Biomass fuel Organic materials (biomass) are

converted to liquid or gaseous fuels such as

ethanol, methanol, methane, and hydrogen. They

are burned for energy purposes. Sources for

biomass fuel include agricultural residue, pulp/

paper mill residue, urban wood waste, forest

residue, energy crops, landﬁll methane, and animal

waste. When plants (biomass) are burned, the

sugars contained in the plants, the polymer of 6-

carbon sugars, break down and release energy

exothermically, giving off CO

, heat, and steam.

The by-products of this reaction can be captured

and manipulated to create electricity, known as

biopower (or biomass power). Biomass fuels

also can produce heat and steam. Fuels can be

derived from biomass sources through conver-

sion methods such as direct combustion boiler

and steam turbines, anaerobic digestion, co-ﬁring,

gasiﬁcation, and pyrolysis. The co-ﬁring method

mixes biomass with coal.

As an energy source, biomass is renewable,

more evenly distributed over the Earth’s surface,

and uses less capital-intensive technologies. It

ranks second to hydropower in renewable primary

34 Biomass

energy production. See also: Biomass; Biomass

electricity; Biopower

Biomass gasiﬁcation Conversion of biomass

into a gas or thermal gasiﬁcation, in which

hydrogen is produced from high-temperature

gasifying and low-temperature pyrolysis of

biomass. See also:

Biomass electricity; Gasiﬁcation

Biomass power See: Biomass electricity; Biomass

fuel; Biopower

Biomass pyramid Total distribution of organisms

in each trophic level (see Figure 8).

Biome Geographical region of the world that

has a distinctive climate and environment that

affects the living organisms and vegetation within

it. The climate and geography of a region deter-

mines what type of biome can exist in that region.

Major biomes include deserts, forests, grasslands,

tundra, and several types of aquatic environment.

Each biome consists of many ecosystems, whose

communities have adapted to the small differ-

ences in climate and environment within the

biome. All living things are closely related to

their environment. Any change in one part of an

environment, such as an increase or decrease in

a species of animal or plant, causes a ripple effect

of change through other parts of the environment.

Biomimicry Also known as biomimetics. Using

nature as a model and imitating it. Nature

Figure 8 A biomass pyramid

Figure 9 Major biomes of the world

Biomimicry 35

provides an endless source of models and prin-

ciples for invention. A corollary is ecomimicry

as a fundamental design strategy in ecodesign.

Examples of natural processes that can be used

in human communities include use of solar

energy using photosynthesis or creating artiﬁcial

photosynthesis; recycling of waste; and increasing

energy efﬁciency. See also:

Bionics; Ecomimicry

Biomineralization The process by which living

organisms produce minerals, usually to harden

or stiffen existing tissues. Examples include sili-

cates in algae and diatoms, carbonates in inverte-

brates, and calcium phosphates and carbonates

in vertebrates. These minerals often form structures

such as sea shells and the bone in mammals

and birds. Other examples include copper, iron,

and gold deposits involving bacteria. See also:

Biodegradation

Bionics Also known as bionical creativity

engineering. The application of systems and

methods found in nature to the design of

modern technology, engineering, and systems

in the built environment. See also:

Biomimicry

Biophilia Genetic tendency of humans to

respond positively to nature, particularly plants.

This has inﬂuenced the use of plants internally

and externally in the built environment in eco-

design. Research has shown that humans respond

positively to nature and plants: for example,

hospital patients heal more quickly, stay in

hospital for shorter periods, and require less

medication when they have views of nature and

plants.

Bioplastics Instead of traditional petroleum-

derived plastics, bioplastics are biodegradable

and compostable plastics made from renewable

raw materials, such as starch (including, but not

limited to, corn, potato, and tapioca), cellulose,

soybean oil, lactic acid, and hemp oil. Bioplastics

are not hazardous in production and

decompose back to carbon dioxide, water, and

biomass in the environment when discarded.

Corn starch is currently the main raw material

being used in the manufacture of bioplastic

resins. This is generally regarded as a more sus-

tainable process, as it relies less on fossil fuels

and produces less greenhouse emissions. See also:

Biodegradable plastics; Bioenhancing plastics;

Bioregenerative plastics

Biopolymer Biopolymers are polymers that are

biodegradable. The materials for production of

these polymers may be based on agricultural

plant or animal products, and may be renew-

able or synthetic. There are four main types of

biopolymer, based on starch, sugar, cellulose,

and synthetic materials.

Biopower Also known as biomass power.

Electricity produced as a by-product of burning

biomass fuels. Methods used include direct

ﬁring, co-ﬁring, gasiﬁcation, pyrolysis, and anae-

robic digestion. See also:

Biomass electricity;

Biomass fuel

Bioregenerative plastics Polycaprolactone ﬁlm

completely biodegrades within three months

with no residues. These ﬁlms, used on paper

products, are water-resistant and have potential

uses in many types of container for liquids. See

also:

Bioplastics; Biodegradable plastics

Bioregion A subset of the biosphere. Each

bioregion contains characteristic fauna and ﬂora

that have adapted to the region’s climate, soils,

and landforms, and each bioregion has its own

ecosystem. Examples include tropical rain for-

ests, open woodlands and savannas, tundra and

alpine areas, and deserts.

Bioremediation Used in tandem with phytor-

emediation. Use of biological processes to

remove pollutants from a contaminated envir-

onment, such as the ability of trees and

36 Biomineralization

vegetation to remove pollution from rainwater.

Green roofs and shade trees mitigate urban

runoff and nonpoint-source nitrogen and phos-

phorus pollution through these processes. See

also:

Phytoremediation

Biosphere All forms of life that exist on Earth;

all ecosystems and living organisms in the

atmosphere, on the land or in the oceans,

including derived dead organic matter such as

litter, soil organic matter, and oceanic detritus.

Biosphere 2 An enclosed structure in Oracle,

Arizona, USA covering 3.14 acres, originally built

by Space Biosphere Ventures to be an artiﬁcial,

closed ecological system. Constructed between

1987 and 1991, it was used to study ecosys-

tems. It studied the manipulation of a biosphere

without harming the external environment. Bio-

sphere 2 was the largest closed system ever

created. The sealed nature of the structure allowed

scientists to monitor the ever-changing chemistry

of the air, water, and soil contained within.

The biosphere included a 850 m

(1,017 yd

)

ocean with a coral reef, a 450 m

(538 yd

) man-

grove wetlands, a 1900 m

(2,272 yd

) savan-

nah grassland, a 1400 m

(1,674 yd

) fog desert,

a 2500 m

(2,990 yd

) agricultural system, a

human habitat with living quarters and ofﬁce, and

a below-ground-level technical facility. Heating

and cooling water circulated through independent

piping systems, and electrical power was sup-

plied from a natural gas energy center through

airtight penetrations.

Bioswales Swaled drainage course with gently

sloped sides (less than 6%) and ﬁlled with

vegetation, compost and/or riprap. The water’s

ﬂow path, along with the wide and shallow ditch,

are designed to maximize the time water spends

in the swale, which aids the trapping of pollutants

and silt from surface runoff water. Used for sustain-

able drainage systems in ecodesign and ecomas-

terplanning to return rainfall back to the land and

to prevent ﬂooding. Commonly used around park-

ing lots, where automotive pollution is collected

by the paving and then ﬂushed by rain. The bios-

wale, or other type of bioﬁlter, wraps around the

parking lot and treats the runoff before releasing it

to the watershed or storm sewer (see Figure 10).

Biotechnology (biotech) Technologies based

on biology, especially when used in agriculture,

food science, and medicine. The United Nations

Convention on Biological Diversity deﬁnes bio-

technology as: “Any technological application

Figure 10 Use of bioswales for site-water management

Biotechnology (biotech) 37