Wilson J. Richard. Minerals and Rocks
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J. RICHARD WILSON
MINERALS AND ROCKS
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J. Richard Wilson
Minerals and Rocks
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Minerals and Rocks
© 2010 J. Richard Wilson & Ventus Publishing ApS
ISBN 978-87-7681-647-6
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Minerals and Rocks
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Contents
Contents
Preface 9
1. Introduction 10
1.1 Igneous rocks 11
1.2 Sedimentary rocks 11
1.3 Metamorphic rocks 12
1.4 The Rock Cycle 12
2. Minerals – an Introduction 14
2.1 Denition of a mineral 14
2.1.1 Polymorphs 15
2.2 Properties of minerals 15
2.2.1 Crystal form, growth habit and twinning 16
2.2.2 Cleavage and fracture 18
2.2.3 Lustre 18
2.2.4 Colour 18
2.2.5 Streak 19
2.2.6 Hardness 19
2.2.7 Tenacity 20
2.2.8 Density 20
2.2.9 Other properties 20
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Contents
3. Crystallography 21
3.1 Symmetry 22
3.2 Crystal systems 26
3.3 Crystal classes 31
3.4 Indices of crystal faces 31
4. Systematic Mineralogy 41
4.1 Silicate minerals 41
4.1.1 Nesosilicates 42
4.1.2 Sorosilicates (epidote) 50
4.1.3 Cyclosilicates 51
4.1.4 Inosilicates 53
4.1.5 Phyllosilicates 58
4.1.6 Tectosilicates 61
4.2 Non-silicate minerals 69
4.2.1 Native elements 70
4.2.2 Sulphides 70
4.2.3 Oxides 71
4.2.4 Chlorides and uorides 73
4.2.5 Carbonates 75
4.2.6 Sulphates 76
4.2.7 Phosphates 76
5. Igneous rocks 77
5.1 Classication of igneous rocks 77
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Contents
5.1.1 Plutonic rocks 78
5.1.2 Volcanic rocks 85
5.1.3 Mineral assemblages 91
5.2 Magma 92
5.2.1 Where does magma come from? 93
5.2.2 The composition of magma 96
5.2.3 Temperature 99
5.2.4 Viscosity 99
5.2.5 Density 100
5.3 Eruption of magma 100
5.3.1 Non-explosive eruptions 100
5.3.2 Explosive eruptions 103
5.4 Volcanoes 105
5.4.1 The shapes of volcanoes 105
5.4.2 Calderas 105
5.5 Plutonic rocks 106
5.5.1 Minor intrusions (dykes and sills) 106
5.5.2 Major intrusions (plutons) 108
5.5.3 Chilled margins 111
5.6 The origin of magma 111
5.6.1 Distribution of volcanoes 111
5.6.2 Origin of basaltic magma 112
5.6.3 Origin of andesitic magma 114
5.6.4 Origin of rhyolitic magma 114
5.6.5 Crystallization of magmas 114
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Contents
5.7 Igneous mineral deposits 122
6. Sedimentary rocks 123
6.1 Introduction 123
6.2 Weathering 123
6.3. Classication of sedimentary rocks 128
6.3.1 Clastic sedimentary rocks 129
6.3.2 Biochemical sedimentary rocks 132
6.3.3 Organic sedimentary rocks 132
6.3.4 Chemical sedimentary rocks 133
6.4 Sedimentary structures 134
6.4.1 Layering (bedding) 134
6.4.2 Surface markings 135
6.4.3 Graded bedding 136
6.5 Where do sediments form? 136
6.5.1 Terrestrial environments 137
6.5.2 Marine environments 139
7. Metamorphic rocks 142
7.1 Introduction 142
7.2 Metamorphism – causes and effects 143
7.2.1 Heat 143
7.2.2 Pressure 143
7.2.3 Water 144
7.2.4 Differential stress 144
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Contents
7.3 Types of metamorphic rocks 145
7.3.1 Non-foliated metamorphic rocks 146
7.3.2 Foliated metamorphic rocks 146
7.3.3 Types of protolith 149
7.4 Grades of metamorphism 150
7.4.1 The progressive metamorphism of shale 151
7.4.2 Index minerals and metamorphic zones 155
7.4.3 Metamorphic facies 157
7.4.4 Geothermal gradients 158
7.5 Environments of metamorphism 158
7.5.1 Burial metamorphism 158
7.5.2 Blueschist facies and eclogite facies metamorphism 159
7.5.3 Regional metamorphism 160
7.5.4 Thermal metamorphism 161
7.5.5 Dynamic metamorphism 162
7.5.6 Metamorphism at mid-ocean ridges 162
7.6 Where do metamorphic rocks occur? 163
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Preface
Preface
The first version of this text was written to serve as lecture notes for a first term geology course in “Minerals
and Rocks” at Aarhus University in Denmark in 2003. In Aarhus this course is accompanied by a general
“Introduction to Geology” course that presents, for example, the structure of the Earth, plate tectonics and
paleontology. These topics are therefore not treated here, and some knowledge of the Earth´s structure and
plate tectonics is assumed.
After a brief introduction to the Rock Cycle, this text presents the physical properties of minerals and an
introduction to crystallography. The most important rock-forming minerals are then dealt with in a
systematic way, followed by the three main rock groups – igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
A lecture course in Minerals and Rocks must be accompanied by a parallel sequence of practical classes
where, for example, crystal structures, minerals and rock types dealt with in theory are demonstrated in
practice.
J. Richard Wilson
June 2010
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Introduction
1. Introduction
The solid part of the Earth is made up of rocks. Rocks are made up of minerals. A mineral is a naturally
occurring inorganic solid. It has a specific chemical composition and a characteristic crystal structure. Quartz
is a very common mineral. Most beach sand is composed of quartz. It has the composition SiO
2
and forms
elongate 6-sided crystals that terminate at a point (Picture 1.1).
Picture 1.1: Quartz crystals.
Pyrite is also a naturally occurring mineral that forms cubic crystals (Picture 1.2). It is also known as iron
pyrites and has the composition FeS
2
.
Picture 1.2: Pyrite cube.