Wilamowski B.M., Irwin J.D. The Industrial Electronics Handbook. Second Edition: Industrial Communication Systems

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RFID Technology and Its Industrial Applications 9-9

•. e.embedded.electronic.information.for.each.badge.can.be.overwritten.repeatedly.

•

. RFI

.ba

dges

.ca

.be.re

.fr

.mu

.fu

rther

.di

stances

.th

.ot

her

.tr

aditional

.te

chnologies.

•

. Mul

tiple

.RF

.ba

dges

.ca

.be.re

.al

.at.th

.sa

.ti

me.

•

. e.inc

reased

.rea

ding

.dis

tance

.thu

.ena

bles

.oth

.tra

cking

.tec

hnologies

.lik

.sur

veillance

.cam

eras

to.be.ac

tivated

.in.co

njunction

.wi

.an.em

ployee

.be

ing

.in.th

eir

.vi

cinity.

•

. Inf

ormation

.abo

.emp

loyee

.acce

ss,

.att

endance,

.and.dut

ies

.per

formed

.can.be.eas

ily

.and.ec

iently

mon

itored

.and.sto

red

.in.a.dat

abase.

•

. Acc

ess

.inf

ormation

.can.als

.be.tie

.to.a.Wind

ows

.Act

ive

.Dir

ectory

.or.Lig

htweight

.Dir

ectory

Acc

ess

.Pro

tocol

.(LD

AP)

.for.use

.aut

hentication

.and

.the

refore,

.can.be.syn

chronized

.to.an.aut

ho-

rized

.ac

cess

.sc

heme.

•

. Ent

.and.exi

.doo

.are.ope

rated

.rel

iably

.by.RFI

.rea

der/tag

.net

work

.wit

hout

.sho

wing

.or.mak

ing

lin

.of.sig

.pos

ition

.of.the.car

.in.fro

.of.rea

der.

9.4.1 Family access to Babies in Neonatal Care

In.intensive.care.units.(ICUs),.the.patient’s.relatives.nd.diculty.in.having.access.to.the.patients,.e.g.,.

tak

.the.cas

.of.a.new

born

.nee

ding

.neo

natal

.car

.fam

ily

.memb

ers

.are.alm

ost

.as.anx

ious

.as.the.new.

mot

her,

.to.gre

.and.bon

.wit

.the.new.fam

ily

.memb

er.

.Due.to.res

tricted

.acc

ess

.in.the.ICU

.thi

.wou

be.ver

.di

cult

.for.the

.to.see.the.con

dition

.of.the.new

born.

.To.add

ress

.thi

.pro

blem

.RFI

.is.use

. e.

new

born

.is.assi

gned

.a.uni

que

.ID,.embe

dded

.in.its.RFI

.tag

.whi

.cor

relates

.to.its.mot

her’s

.ID..RFI

sol

ves

.thi

.pro

blem

.by.mak

ing

.ava

ilable

.to.fam

ilies

.the.abi

lity

.to.vie

.on.a.com

puter

.mon

itor

.out

side

of.the.ICU.the.key.dat

.abo

.the.bab

.a.pho

tograph,

.hei

ght,

.wei

ght,

.ski

.col

or,

.and.tem

perature

.ae

key

ing

.in

.fo

.ex

ample,

.th

.mo

ther’s

.fa

mily

.na

.an

.r

.na

.[H

EA09].

9.4.2 Vehicle Identication

In.many.major.cities.of.the.world.like.New.York.in.the.United.States,.Sydney.in.Australia,.and.London.

in.the.Uni

ted

.Kin

gdom,

.car.par

king

.is.a.big.iss

.now

adays.

. is.is.bec

ause

.of.the.gro

wing

.numb

of.tra

c

.and.the.mis

use

.of.the.exi

sting

.par

king

.lot.res

ources

.[VI

07].

.Exi

sting

.par

king

.lot.ope

rators,

whe

ther

.pu

blic

.or.pr

ivate,

.fa

.a.nu

mber

.of.ch

allenges

.su

.as

•

. Acc

urately

.id

entify

.an

.au

thorize

.ve

hicle

.mo

vement.

•

. Col

lect

.an

.re

cord

.ve

hicle

.mo

vement

.da

ta.

•

. Ana

lyze

.tr

ac

.pa

tterns

.to.ma

ximize

.fa

cility

.ut

ilization.

•

. Inc

rease

.se

curity

.wi

thin

.th

.pa

rking

.fa

cility.

•

. Man

age

.st

ang

.fo

.pe

.tr

ac

.pe

riods.

•

. Relieve.congestion.

•

. Imp

rove

.cu

stomer

.se

rvice.

.mee

.the.cha

llenges

.of.the.ful

.auto

mated

.par

king

.lot

.RFI

.tec

hnology

.giv

.ope

rators

.the.abi

lity

to.en

hance

.pa

rking

.co

ntrol

.ma

nagement

.sy

stems

.in.th

.fo

llowing

.wa

.[A

PS06]:

•

. e. use. of. RFI

. sys

tem

. mak

. it. easi

. to. auto

mate

. the. “in. and. out

”

. pri

vileges

. of. par

king

sub

scribers.

•

. Exi

sting

.pri

vate

.par

king

.pol

icies

.can.be.sea

mlessly

.int

egrated

.wit

.pub

lic

.par

king

.are

.wit

out

.inc

reased

.man

power.

. is.all

ows

.auto

mated

.ent

.and.exi

.auto

mated

.pay

ment

.and.sho

rter

que

ues

.eq

uate

.to.sa

tised

.cu

stomers.

•

. Usin

.RF

.ne

twork

.se

curity

.ca

.be.im

proved.

•

. Occ

upancy

.ra

tes

.an

.dw

ell

.ti

mes

.ca

.be.in

stantly

.ca

lculated.

•

. RFI

D-based

.int

elligent

.par

king

.lot.sys

tem

.hel

.in.stu

dying

.the.exi

sting

.res

ource

.occ

upancy

.for.

future.expansion.

•

. Abo

.al

.th

ese

.be

nets

.wi

.dr

ive

.hi

gher

.re

venues.

9-10 Industrial Communication Systems

9.5 anticounterfeiting

Counterfeiting.is.the.process.of.fraudulently.manufacturing,.altering,.or.distributing.a.product.that.

is.of.less

.valu

.than.the.genu

ine

.prod

uct.

.Coun

terfeiters

.now.have.the.abil

ity

.to.repl

icate

.bran

logo

.and.prod

uct

.qual

ity

.crit

eria

.near

.perf

ectly—making

.any.atte

mpt

.to.disp

rove

.thei

.auth

en-

ticity

.both.expe

nsive

.and.time

-consuming.

.And.the.ght.agai

nst

.gray

-market

.trad

.has.been.made.

even.more.dic

ult

.beca

use

.coun

terfeiters

.now.freq

uently

.use.genu

ine

.part

.in.thei

.fake.prod

ucts.

Coun

terfeiting

.is.now.a.glob

.prob

lem.

.Seve

.perc

ent

.(7%).[BGK

07]

.of.all.worl

.trad

.is.in.coun

ter-

feit

.good

.and.that.over.the.past.10.year

.coun

terfeiting

.has.dest

royed

.120,0

.jobs.each.year.in.the.

Unit

.Stat

es,

.and.100,

000

.in.Euro

.[ICC

C06].

.With.the.coun

terfeit

.indu

stry

.grow

ing

.at.a.rate.of.

6%–8

.annu

ally,

.it.is.esti

mated

.to.be.a.US$3

.bill

ion

.indu

stry

.in.the.Unit

.Stat

.and.US$5

.bil-

ion

.worl

dwide.

. e.Germ

.advo

cacy

.grou

.APM,.whic

.ght

.prod

uct

.and.bran

.pira

cy,

.calc

ulates

annu

.loss

.for.the.Germ

.econ

omy

.due.to.coun

terfeiting

.at.€25.bill

ion.

.Coun

terfeit

.good

.do.

not.only.targ

.famo

.bran

.name

.but.anyth

ing

.that.can.buy..Virt

ually

.ever

.coun

try

.in.the.worl

sue

.from.coun

terfeiting

.whic

.resu

lts

.in—l

ost

.tax.reve

nue,

.job.loss

es,

.heal

.and.safe

.prob

lems,

and.busi

ness

.loss

es.

RFID

.tech

nology

.has.been.prop

osed

.to.addr

ess

.the.abov

.conc

erns

.sinc

.RFID.tags.can.be.atta

ched

to.indi

vidual

.item

.enco

ded

.with.prod

uct

.spec

ic

.info

rmation

.whic

.can.prov

.its.auth

enticity

.and.

orig

inality.

.A.numb

.of.RFID.anti

counterfeiting

.mech

anisms

.have.rece

ntly

.been.prop

osed.

. ese.

syst

ems

.are.aime

.at.rela

tively

.high

-end

.cons

umer

.prod

ucts,

.and.help

.prot

ect

.genu

ine

.prod

ucts

by.main

taining

.the.prod

uct

.pedi

gree

.and.the.supp

.chai

.inte

grity.

. e.main.appl

ication

.area

.for.

RFID. anticounterfeit. technology. include. electronic. drug. pedigree,. tracking. genuine. automobile.

part

.docu

ment

.auth

entication,

.and.dete

cting

.fake.curr

ency

.and.pass

ports.

.We.now.disc

uss

.each.of.

thes

.appl

ications.

9.5.1 Electronic Drug Pedigree

One.of.the.most.important.applications.of.RFID.anticounterfeit.technology.is.detecting.genuine.

drug

.from.coun

terfeit

.drug

.It.is.esti

mated

.that.betw

een

.5%.and.8%.of.the.500.bill

ion

.USD.in.

medi

cines

.sold.worl

dwide

.are.coun

terfeit

.[STF

05,

.BASC

04]

.and.for.deve

loping

.coun

tries

.the.per-

entage

.of. coun

terfeit

.drug

.acco

unt

.for.up.to.60%.of.all.drug

.[IP0

5,KSCB03]

.and.can.lead.to.

inju

.and,.in.some.case

.fata

lity.

.It.is.proj

ected

.that.95%.of.coun

terfeit

.phar

maceuticals

.prov

ide

litt

.or.no.ther

apeutic

.valu

.Acco

rding

.to.the.Worl

.Heal

.Orga

nization,

.43%.of.them.cont

ain

.no.

acti

.ing

redient,

.and.ano

ther

.21%.are.sub

potent,

.oe

.cau

sed

.by.cou

nterfeiters

.exp

anding

.vol

ume

thro

ugh

.dilu

tion.

.As.many.as.25,0

.canc

.pati

ents

.may.have.rece

ived

.subp

otent

.medi

cine

.that.was.

1/20

.the.stre

ngth

.pres

cribed

.by.thei

.phys

icians

.when.Proc

rit

•

.was.relabeled.by.U.S..counterfeiters.

in.2002

.Of.110,

000

.vial

.labe

led

.as.the.high

est-dose

.40,0

00-unit

.prod

uct,

.but.actu

ally

.cont

aining

the.lowe

st-dose

.2,00

0-unit

.prod

uct,

.only.8,00

.were.reco

vered;

.the.coun

terfeiters

.gain

.appr

oxi-

mately

.$46.mill

ion

.[GFL

03].

.With.the.glob

.natu

.of.mode

.supp

.chai

ns,

.it.has.neve

.been.easy.

to.cope.with.coun

terfeiters.

.Seek

ing

.solu

tions

.to.coun

terfeiting,

.the.Food.and.Drug.Admi

nistration

(FDA

)

.reco

mmended,

.in.Febr

uary

.2004

.that. each.drug. have.an.elec

tronic

.pedi

gree,

.whic

.is.a.

“sec

ure

.reco

.docu

menting

.the.drug.was.manu

factured

.and. dist

ributed

.unde

.safe.and.secu

cond

itions”

.[CCD

04].

. e.FDA’

.appr

oach

.to.cost

-eectively

.trac

king

.indi

vidual

.drug.prod

ucts

.in.

the.supp

.chai

.is.to.seri

alize

.each.drug.prod

uct,

.adop

.elec

tronic

.pedi

grees,

.and.auto

mate

.the.

trac

king

.proc

ess

.usin

.RFID

. e.Auth

enticated

.RFID.mode

.[SA0

.enha

nces

.item

-level

.prod

uct

secu

rity

.in.real

-time,

.inde

pendent

.of.a.conn

ection

.to.a.host.netw

ork,

.by.crea

ting

.stro

.auth

entica-

tion

.betw

een

.the.tag.and.an.auth

enticated

.RFID.read

er.

.By.init

ially

.depl

oying

.the.mode

.at.the.poin

of.manu

facturing

.and.the.poin

.of.disp

ensing,

.the.phar

maceutical

.indu

stry

.imme

diately

.prov

ides

.a.

high

.leve

.of.item

-level

.auth

entication

.agai

nst

.coun

terfeit

.prod

ucts

.[POT

06,EDP09].

.Aer.init

ial

intr

oduction

.of.RFID.and.Publ

.Key.Infr

astructure

.(PKI

)

.end-

to-end

.item

-level

.auth

entication,

RFID Technology and Its Industrial Applications 9-11

the.integration.of.other.points.in.the.chain.of.custody.provide.ever.increasing.levels.of.condence.

in.the.sup

ply

.cha

in.

.Whi

.bar.cod

.sol

utions

.may.cos

.les

.in.the.sho

.ter

.the

.are.a.num

ber

.of.

sho

rtcomings,

.com

pared

.wit

.RFI

.tha

.lim

.the

.ee

ctiveness

.ove

.tim

.For.exa

mple,

•

. RFI

.has.the.cap

acity

.to.stor

.lar

ger

.amo

unts

.of.inf

ormation

.and.can.be.rea

.mor

.fas

ter

.tha

bar.cod

.(40

-plus

.rea

.per.sec

ond,

.com

pared

.wit

.one.to.two.for.bar.cod

es),

.and.req

uires

.far.

les

.hu

man

.in

volvement.

•

. Bar.co

des

.re

quire

.a.di

rect

.li

.of.sig

.to.be.re

ad,

.wh

ile

.RF

.ta

.do.no

•

. Bar.cod

.mus

.be.abl

.to.sur

vive

.on.mul

tiple

.typ

.of.pri

nted

.med

.in.har

.con

ditions,

.som

times

.ov

.lo

.pe

riods

.of.ti

me.

•

. Barcodes.are.easy.to.duplicate.by.using.a.simple.inkjet.printer.

•

. Bar

codes

.ca

nnot

.sto

.th

.li

fecycle

.in

formation

.ab

out

.an

.pr

oduct

.bu

.RF

.ca

 us,

.RFI

.tech

nology

.has.seen.to.be.ver

.eec

tive

.in.man

aging

.cou

nterfeit

.pha

rmaceutical

.pro

ducts

and.pr

eventing

.th

.en

try

.of.fa

.dr

ugs

.in.th

.su

pply

.ch

ain.

9.5.2 Bank Notes

Other.than.pharmaceutical.drugs,.another.areas.where.RFID.anticounterfeiting.technology.is.mak-

ing

.sig

nicant

.inr

oads

.is.in.sec

uring

.cur

rency

.or.bil

ls.

.Cou

nterfeit

.eur

.bil

.wer

.ass

umed

.to.be.

com

ing

.fro

.Gre

ece

.and.oth

.new.mem

ber

.sta

tes

.in.the.Eur

opean

.Uni

on.

.In.200

.Gre

.aut

horities

dea

.wit

.241

.cou

nterfeiting

.cas

.and.sei

zed

.477

.cou

nterfeit

.ban

knotes,

.whe

reas

.Pol

ish

.aut

hori-

ties

.arr

ested

.a.gan

.tha

.cir

culated

.mor

.tha

.1.mil

lion

.fak

.eur

.in.the.mar

ket

.[BI

L06,JUN01].

.To.

add

ress

.thi

.pro

blem

.of.cou

nterfeit

.cur

rency,

.Eur

opean

.cen

tral

.ban

.sta

rted

.loo

king

.at.the.pos

sibility

.of.imp

lementing

.RFI

.tec

hnology

.in.eur

.bil

.and.rol

ling

.out.suc

.bil

.by.200

. e.mai

que

stion

.the

.was.to.dec

ide

.on.whi

.bil

.to.tag.as.it.wou

.not.be.cos

.ee

ctive

.to.tag.€5.or.€10.eur

not

es.

.So.the.mos

.lik

ely

.opt

ion

.was.to.tag.hig

.den

omination

.not

.lik

.the.€20

.or.€50

.to.det

mon

.lau

ndering

.act

ivities

.[AV

O04,JUE03].

.Som

.oth

.cha

llenges

.tha

.nee

.to.be.met.wou

.be.

the.pri

vacy

.con

cerns;

.an.RFI

D-embedded

.ban

.not

.can.be.use

.to.tra

.peo

ple

.who.are.car

rying

.lot.

of.cas

.and.wou

.pro

.to.be.tar

gets

.of.rob

bery.

.Oth

.tha

.ret

ailers

.cou

.mis

use

.thi

.fea

ture

by.est

imating

.the.buy

ing

.powe

.of.the.cus

tomer

.and.can.dev

ice

.str

ategies

.to.red

uce

.the.bar

gaining

pow

.of. the.cus

tomer.

.The

.are. som

.of. the.iss

ues

.to. be. con

sidered

.bef

ore

.imp

lementing

.an.

RFI

D-enabled

.ban

.not

9.5.3 Secure Passports and Visas

Other.than.bank.notes,.travel.documents.like.passports.are.now.already.using.RFID.chips.that.are.

mak

ing

.the.pas

sports

.mac

hine

.rea

dable

.oe

.ter

med

.as.mac

hine

.rea

dable

.tra

vel

.doc

uments.

.Man

cou

ntries

.lik

.Aus

tralia,

.Uni

ted

.Stat

es,

.and.Eur

opean

.nat

ions

.are.alr

eady

.iss

uing

.pas

sports

.wit

.RFI

tag.embe

dded

.wit

hin

.the

. er

.is.als

.bee

.tal

.abo

.imp

lementing

.RFI

.vis

.to.inc

rease

.the.

aut

henticity

.of.the.vis

.iss

ued.

.In.the.pas

.man

.peo

ple

.hav

.bee

.fra

udulently

.iss

uing

.vis

.for.dev

el-

oped

.na

tions.

. e

.ac

tivities

.ca

.no

.be.co

ntrolled

.by.ha

ving

.an.RF

ID-enabled

.vi

.[D

IM07].

9.5.4 automobile Parts

Counterfeiting.of.automobile.parts.is.also.a.big.industry..It.is.estimated.that.on.an.average.about.5%–10%.

of.all.spa

.par

.are.cou

nterfeits

.[LA

LK03].

.Cou

nterfeit

.pro

ducts

.pos

.a.big.thr

eat

.to.the.auto

mobile

ind

ustry,

.sinc

.fak

.pro

ducts

.not.onl

.eat.up.the.rev

enue

.of.the.ori

ginal

.man

ufacturer

.but.it.can.als

inc

rease

.the.ris

.of.war

ranty

.iss

ues

.for.the.auto

mobile

.man

ufacturer.

.Hen

ce,

.the.auto

mobile

.ind

ustry

.is.

now.loo

king

.at.the.pos

sibility

.of.usin

.RFI

.tec

hnology

.for.tra

cking

.the.auto

mobile

.par

.thr

oughout

the.su

pply

.ch

ain

.to.en

sure

.th

.co

unterfeits

.do.no

.en

ter

.th

.ma

rket.

9-12 Industrial Communication Systems

9.6 Conclusion

In.this.chapter,.we.introduced.RFID.technology.by.explaining.the.main.RFID.architecture,.which.included.

RFID.trans

ponders,

.read

ers,

.ante

nnas,

.and.midd

leware.

.We,.then

.outl

ined

.the.main.appl

ication

.area

of.RFID

.whic

.incl

uded

.item.trac

king,

.acce

.contr

ol,

.and.anti

counterfeiting.

.With

.each.appl

ication

umbr

ella,

.we.cover

.the.most.popu

lar

.appl

ications

.like.bagg

age

.trac

king,

.libr

ary

.book.trac

king,

.anim

trac

king,

.hosp

ital

.equi

pment

.trac

king,

.pati

ent

.trac

king,

.newb

orn

.baby.trac

king,

.trac

king

.chil

dren,

.golf.

ball.trac

king,

.crow

.contr

ol,

.vehi

cle

.iden

tication,

.elec

tronic

.drug.pedi

gree,

.anti

counterfeit

.bank.note

secu

.pass

ports

.and.visa

.and.anti

counterfeit

.auto

mobile

.part

. ere.are.many.othe

.appl

ications

.of.

RFID.tech

nology,

.and.it.can.be.said.that.the.appl

ications

.can.only.be.limi

ted

.by.imag

ination.

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lable

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able

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.U.S..Paten

.7170391,.avail

able

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[GBT04]

.RFIDNe

ws.org,

.Golf.Bal

.Track

ing

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em,

.avai

lable

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p://www.rdnews.org/2004/

05/28/golf-b

alltracking-system/,

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iday,

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nuary

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.G.M..Gaul.and.M.P..Flah

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in,

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tober

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ure

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ution

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ins,

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uth

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utions

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lthcare

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ustry,

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lable

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iday,

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nuary

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ufacturing,

. avai

lable

. onlin

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p://manufacturing.gaord.com/,

. accesse

. on.

Frid

ay,

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nuary

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[IC

CC06]

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ernational

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mber

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erce

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ercial

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ices,

.Int

ernational

. Guide. to.

IP.Righ

.Enfor

cement

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ion

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ernational

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mber

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erce

.Coun

terfeiting

Int

elligence

.Bur

eau,

.2006.

NTE06]

.In

termec,

.IP

.In

telllitag

.Po

rtable

.Re

ader

.(U

HF),

.Ju

.14

.20

06,

.fr

.ht

tp://www.pointofsaleinc.com/

pdf/Intermec/ip3.pdf

[IP05]

.Int

ellectual

.pro

perty:

.Sour

.of.innova

tion,

.crea

tivity,

.gro

wth

.and.prog

ress,

.Tec

hnical

.repo

rt,

.ICC,.

Augus

.2005.

[JUE03]

.A..Juel

.and.R..Pap

pu,

.Sque

aling

.euros:.Pri

vacy

.pro

tection

.in.RFID-enab

led

.ban

knotes,

.in.R.N..

Wrig

.(Ed.),.Pro

ceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Financial Cryptography (FC

2003),

.Lec

ture Notes in Computer Science,

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loupe,

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ce,

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uary

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UN01]

.J..Yos

hida,

.Eur

.ban

.not

.to.emb

.RFI

.chi

.by.200

.EET

imes,

.Dec

ember

.19,.200

avai

lable

. onl

ine

. at. htt

p://www.eetimes.com/story/OEG20011219S0016,

. acc

essed

. on. Tue

sday,

Jan

uary

.13,.200

[KSCB03]

.R..Koh,.E.W..Sch

uster,

.I..Chac

krabarti,

.and.A..Bel

lman,

.Secu

ring the Pharmaceutical Supply

Chain,

.Whit

.Pap

.MIT-AUT

OID-WH-021,

.Aut

o-Id

.Cent

.MIT,.Cam

bridge,

.MA,.Sept

ember

.1,.

2003,.ava

ilable

.on

line

.at.ht

tp://www.mitdatacenter.org/MIT-AUTOID-WH021.pdf

[LALK03]

. B.. Lal

k-Menzel

. and. D.. Chr

ysler,

. ava

ilable

. onl

ine

. at. htt

p://www.autoid.org/sc31/clr/

200305_3826_Aut

omotive%20Prpsl.pdf,

.access

.on.Tues

day,

.Ja

nuary

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EAV05]

.S..Lea

ver,

.Eva

luating

.RFI

.Mid

dleware,

.200

.ret

rieved

.Aug

ust

.07,.200

.fro

.http:

//www.

forrester.com/Research/Document/Excerpt/0,7211,34390,00.html

[LIV09]

.GAO

RFID

.Sol

utions

.for.Liv

estock

.and.Oth

.Ani

mal

.Tra

cking,

.ava

ilable

.onl

ine

.at.htt

p://

livestock.gaord.com/,

.access

.on.Fr

iday,

.Ja

nuary

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S08]

.RFI

.for.Pos

tal

.and.Cou

rier

.Ser

vices

.200

8–2018,

.ava

ilable

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ine

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p://www.researchand-

markets.com/reportinfo.asp?report_id=615186&t=t&cat_id=,

.acc

essed

.on.Fri

day,

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uary

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[PM09]

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.Int

ernational

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urity

.Ind

ustry,

.avai

lable

.onlin

.at.htt

p://www.rdsb.

com/index.php?page=rdsb&c_ID=145,

.access

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[POT06]

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dar,

. E.. Cha

ng,

. and. V.. Pot

dar,

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. indu

stry,

. in.

Pro

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.Mumb

ai,

.Indi

.Decem

ber

15–17,.2006.

[POT07]

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dar,

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ng,

.Aut

omated Data Capture Technologies: RFID,

.Q..Zhan

.(Ed.)..

Hers

hey,

.Lo

ndon,

.U.K..Inf

ormation

.Scien

.Ref

erence,

.pp

.112–141.

[RBC07]

.RFID Bu

siness Case for Baggage Tagging,

.Int

ernational

.Air.Tran

sport

.Ass

ociation

.(IAT

A),

.2007,.

pp..27,.36.

9-14 Industrial Communication Systems

[RFGA06].RFidGazzete.Tag.shapes,.retrieved.June.14,.2006,.from.http://www.rdgazette.org/2005/10/

tag_shapes.html

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ieved

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ven

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urity

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ply

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.and.Ant

i-Counterfeiting

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vention,

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.of.RFI

.in.ant

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App

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p://www.freshpatents.com/Visitor-control-and-

tracking-system-dt20070517ptan20070109134.php,

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ems,

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lable

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[ZHA06]

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ributed

.design.of.RFID.netw

ork

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ge-scale

.RFID.deploy

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in.Proceedings of the Fourth International IEEE Conference on Industrial Informatics (INDIN 2006),.

Singa

pore,

.Augu

.16–18,.2006.

10-1

10.1 Introduction

Wireless.networks.permit.quick.and.easy.installation,.but.depend.on.independent.energy.sources.such.

as.batt

eries

.or.on.ener

.harv

esting.

.Ener

.eci

ency

.is.ther

efore

.a.comm

.requ

irement.

.Neve

rtheless,

in.some.appl

ication

.doma

ins,

.the.solu

tions

.avai

lable

.in.the.mark

.are.too.ener

.hung

.as.they.are.

desig

ned

.for.gene

ral

.purp

ose

.appl

iances.

.Espe

cially

.when.wire

less

.devi

ces

.have.to.run.inde

pendently

for.a.long.time.and.a.high.mini

aturization

.allo

.only.smal

.batt

eries

.or.ener

gy-harvesting

.modu

les,

ultr

alow-power

.wir

eless

.dev

ices

.are.nee

ded.

.exam

ple

.is.the.stru

ctural

.heal

.moni

toring

.of.new.comp

osite

.mate

rials

.for.airp

lanes.

.Comp

osite

mate

rials

.are.stro

ng,

.ligh

.and.can.sign

icantly

.reduc

.the.fuel.cons

umption

.of.the.plan

es,

.but.tiny.crac

in.the.fabr

.reduc

.the.inte

grity

.of.the.mate

rials.

. ese.crac

.can.be.detec

ted

.by.acou

stic

.stru

ctural

.heal

moni

toring

.[FFH0

5].

. e.neces

sary

.sensor

.are.ingr

ained

.with

.the.comp

osite

.mate

rial

.and.need.to.com-

unicate

.wire

lessly

.to.avoi

.the.weig

.of.wire

.and.the.stru

ctural

.impa

.of.cabl

.duct

. e.wire

less

.sen-

sor

.have.to.surv

ive

.on.thei

.own.ener

.sourc

.for.the.life

time

.of.the.plan

.of.10–2

.year

.and.prov

ide

.a.

reli

able

.stru

ctural

.heal

.moni

toring.

. is.requ

ires

.speci

alized

.ultr

alow-power,

.ener

gy-autonomous

.wire

less

.sensor.netw

orks

.that.are.inve

stigated

.as.part.of.the.Germ

.cutt

ing-edge

.resea

rch

.clus

ter

.CoolS

ilicon.

Othe

.scena

rios

.for.ultr

alow-power

.comm

unication

.are,.for.exam

ple,

.wire

less

.swit

ches

.that.harv

est

.ener

from.a.sing

.pres

.on.a.swit

.by.a.huma

.Node.and.netw

ork

.need.to.be.opti

mized

.to.expl

oit

.the.shor

peri

.of.time.the.node.has.ener

.for.comm

unication.

.Rain.sensor

.in.wind

shields

.of.mode

.cars.are.

anot

her

.exam

ple

.for.whic

.indu

stry

.requ

ests

.mini

aturized

.wire

less

.sensor

.for.easy.assem

bling.

Ultralow-Power Wireless Communication

.requ

ires

.a.harm

onized

.desig

.of.the.node

.from.hard

ware

appl

ication.

sow

are.

cove

ring.

the

topic

show

Figu

re.

10.1

pres

ent.

chapt

er.

foll

ows.

this

outl

ine.

and.disc

usses

.the.stat

.of.the.art.in.rese

arch

.to.deve

lop

.a.guid

eline

.to.desig

.ultr

alow-power

.wire

less

comm

unication

.syst

ems.

. e.next.sect

ion

.focu

ses

.on.the.hard

ware

.appr

oaches

.with.an.emph

asis

.on.

ener

.harv

esting

.for.a.long

-lasting

.ener

.supp

ly.

. en,.comm

unication

.proto

cols

.and.topol

ogies

.are.

Ultralow-Power Wireless

Communication

10.1. Introduction.....................................................................................10-1

10.2

. Hard

ware

.App

roaches....................................................................10-2

Overview. •. Energy.Harvesting

10.3. Communication.Protocol.Approaches.........................................10-4

10.4

. Appl

ication

.Lay

.App

roaches......................................................10-6

10.5

. Conc

lusion

.and.Ope

.Top

ics.........................................................10-8

References.....................................................................................................10-9

Joern Ploennigs

Dresden University

of Tec

hnology

Volodymyr

Vasyutynskyy

Dresden University

of Tec

hnology

Klaus Kabitzsch

Dresden University

of Tec

hnology

10-2 Industrial Communication Systems

introduced.that.utilize.energy.sources.eciently.. e.nal.section.looks.at.application.design.concepts.

for.ultralow-power.wireless.communication.

10.2 Hardware approaches

10.2.1 Overview

Figure.10.2.shows.the.common.architecture.of.an.ultralow-power.node..It.consists.of.four.basic.parts.

plus.two.optional.parts.. e.basic.parts,.namely.communication,.processing,.sensor.and.actuation,.as.

well.as.energy.storage,.are.known.from.the.introduction.of.energy-efficient.WSN.in.Chapter.6..

For.ultralow-power.applications,.the.energy.consumption.of.each.component.has.to.be.minimized.

to.provide.only.the.core.functionality.necessary.. is.may.require.developing.customized.hardware.

.new.addition.to.this.basic.design.for.ultralow-power.wireless.nodes.is.the.energy supply,.which.

allows.recharging.the.energy.storage.with.energy-harvesting.approaches.from.the.node.environment..

Basic.energy-harvesting.approaches.will.be.compared.in.the.next.section.

Ultralow

.energy.consumption.is.reached.by.the.option.to.deactivate.individual.hardware.parts.or.

whole.nodes.. is.is.scheduled.by.the.energy management.that.is.usually.running.on.the.microcon-

troller

.or.separately.on.a.low-power.circuit.depending. on.the.power.consumption.of.the.micro-

controller

.and.the.computing.requirements. of.the.task..For.instance,.the.aforementioned. example.

of.acoustic.structural.health.monitoring.for.airplanes.is.a.task.with.high.computation.demands.that.

requires. a. dedicated. digital. signal. processor. (DSP). during. measurements.. Separating. the. energy.

Communication

protocols

Hardware

Topology

Harmonized

design

Application

design

FIGURE 10.1 Aspects.of.ultralow-power.wireless.communication.design.

Transceiver

Controller

Radio

DC/DC

ADC and DAC

Energy storage

(battery)

Energy

harvesting

Energy

management

Energy storage Energy supplyEnergy mgmt.

Volatile/non-

volatile memory

Sensors and

actuators

Processing

layer

Energy

supply

layer

Processor Sensors, actuators

FIGURE 10.2 Common.architecture.of.ultralow-power.nodes.

Ultralow-Power Wireless Communication 10-3

management.and.basic.communication.tasks.on.a.second.low-power.microcontroller.and.activating.

the.DSP.onlyformeasurements.does.save.energy.

10.2.2 Energy Harvesting

 e.power.supply.is.a.bottleneck.for.many.ultralow-power.scenarios..Battery.size.is.the.most.limiting.fac-

tor

.in.miniaturizing.nodes.as.battery.capacities.double.only.every.10.years.in.contrast.to.circuits,.which.

need.only.2.years.due.to.Moore’s.law..As.a.result,.batteries.need.to.be.replaced.regularly,.which.is.laborious.

if.it.is.dicult.to.access.nodes..Energy-harvesting.approaches.provide.an.important.alternative.to.batter-

ies

.and.allow.extending.the.node.lifetime.to.its.hardware.limits.. e.obtained.energy.is.usually.temporar-

ily

.available.depending.on.various.conditions.. e.following.energy.sources.can.be.used.for.harvesting:

•

. Solar:.Several.aspects.should.be.considered.if.solar.cells.are.used..First,.the.energy.density.for.

outdoor.and.indoor.usage.varies.strongly.as.can.be.seen.in.Figure.10.3..Second,.the.sun.as.a.power.

source.is.not.available.during.the.night.. is.can.be.in.principle.compensated.by.adding.match-

ing

.energy.storages.such.as.batteries.or.ultracapacitors,.but.this.is.not.feasible.in.Nordic.countries.

with.polar.nights.. ird,.the.device.needs.access.to.light.and.cannot.be.integrated.in.nontranspar-

ent

.materials.or.placed.in.dark.areas.

•

. Radio-Frequency Power:.Scheible.et.al..[SDE07].demonstrated.how.a.wireless.network.is.supplied.

by.an.electromagnetic.eld.created.around.an.industrial.production.cell.. is.commercially.avail-

able

.product.works.well.for.static.medium-sized.environments.that.are.less.frequented.by.humans.

•

. ermalelectric:. e.temperature.dierence.between.two.adjoining.materials.can.be.used.as.an.

energy.source.through.the.Seebeck.eect..A.rst.low-power.thermalelectric.generator.was.dem-

onstrated

.by.Stordeur.and.Stark.[SS97]..Its.commercial.successor.by. ermo.Life.produces.30.μW/cm

from.5°C.temperature.dierence.on.a.5.cm

.module.

•

. Vibration:.Ambient.motions.or.vibrations.are.promising.energy.sources.especially.in.industrial,.

automotive,.and.avionic.domains.where.vibrations.are.common..Mitcheson.presents.in.[MGY04].

a.good.introduction.of.the.dierent.approaches.from.electromagnetic,.electrostatic,.to.piezoelec-

tric

.technologies.. e.potential.of.energy.harvesting.for.wireless.communication.from.vibrations.

was.demonstrated.in.[R03].

•

. Human Body:. e.human.body.is.a.steady.energy.source.emitting.heat,.movement,.and.vibration..

 us,.it.can.be.scavenged.by.thermalelectric.or.vibration.generators..Paradiso.and.Starner.outline.

the.current.approaches.in.[PS05]..Practical.examples.are.switches.of.the.EnOceans.technology.

[EO08].that.use.only.the.energy.created.by.the.human.body.for.actuating.

10,000

100,000

1,000

100

Solar

(outdoor, sunny)

Solar

(outdoor, cloudy)

Solar

(indoor)

Vibration

Acoustic noise

(@ 100 dB)

Temperature

gradient

(@ 5°C)

Batteries

(non-rearcharg.Li)

Batteries

(recharg. lithium)

Gasoline

Fuel cell

(methanol)

Energy harvesting Energy storage (1st year)

Energy density

(μW/cm

or μW/cm

)

FIGURE 10.3 Comparison.of.the.energy.density.for.dierent.energy.sources.(based.on.[R03]).

10-4 Industrial Communication Systems

Figure.10.3.compares.dierent.energy.sources.for.ultralow-power.devices.from.the.viewpoint.of.

their.energy.density,.which.denes.the.amount.of.energy.that.can.be.obtained.from.an.element.of.a.

comparable.size.of.one.cubic.or.square.(for.at.elements).centimeter.. e.displayed.energy.density.

presents.averaged.values.for.the.rst.year.of.operation.based.on.published.results.. e.energy.capac-

ity

.of.batteries.and.fuel.cells.falls.with.the.consumption.of.resources.. e.comparison.shows.that.the.

energy.densities.of.batteries.and.energy.harvesting.have.the.same.dimension,.implying.that.energy-

harvesting

.modules.are.dicult.to.miniaturize.further.. is.emphasizes.the.necessity.for.designing.

ultralow-power.wireless.devices.that.minimize.energy.consumption.of.such.modules.

10.3 Communication Protocol approaches

Energy.eciency.is.reached.by.turning.hardware.parts.o.or.to.a.sleep mode.with.minimal.energy.con-

sumption

.as.oen.as.possible.. erefore,.nodes.are.unavailable.for.processing.and.communication.tasks.

for.most.of.their.lifetime,.which.requires.specially.designed.communication.protocols.and.applications..

 is.principle.is.commonly.known.as.duty-cycling,.while.the.duty-cycle.is.dened.as.the.fraction.of.time.

the.node.is.not.in.sleep.mode.. e.duty-cycle.should.be.as.low.as.possible.for.ultralow-power.nodes..

Nevertheless,.certain.communication.and.application.performance.parameters.need.to.be.assured.like.

transmission.delay.or.sampling.accuracy..Hence,.communication.and.application.layer.requirements.

and.approaches.need.to.be.harmonized.to.eciently.use.wake-ups.

Communication

.aspects.such.as.medium.access.control.(MAC),.routing,.and.topology.control.have.

strong.inuence.on.the.duty-cycle.and.should.be.selected.adequately..Figure.10.4.illustrates.three.exam-

ple

.scenarios.that.result.in.adequate.combinations.of.approaches.to.be.discussed.in.the.following.para-

graphs.

. e.following.design.questions.are.relevant:.Does.the.network.consist.of.a.xed.deployment.of.

nodes.or.mobile.nodes?.How.large.is.the.area.to.cover?.Is.redundancy.needed.for.functional.safety?.Is.

the.network.used.only.for.data.gathering.or.additionally.for.bidirectional.communication.(like.decen-

tralized

.control.with.actuators)?

For

.a.xed.deployment.covering.a.small.area,.the.simplest.and.most.energy-ecient.solution.is.a.

single-hop.star.architecture.with.a.hub.or.coordinator.that.has.a.wired.energy.supply.and.is.always.on..

 is.permits.the.usage.of.simple.CSMA.protocols.for.the.sensor.nodes.that.can.wake-up.at.any.time.

in.order.to.perform.their.task,.wait.until.the.communication.channel.is.free,.and.send.their.message.

to.the.coordinator.before.going.to.sleep.again..IEEE.802.15.4.is.one.example.that.uses.this.approach.

in. non-beacon. mode.. As. collision. detection. is. not. easily. handled. in. wireless. networks. due. to. the.

Scenario

Fixed deployment Covering a large area Many mobile

devices

Redundant nodes

Covering a small area Bi-directional

communication

Data gathering only

Single-hop Multi-hop Multi-hop

Star topology Cluster tree topology Mesh topology

CSMA MAC Rendezvous-based MAC Adaptive MAC

Flexibility

Energy efficiency

Solution

FIGURE 10.4 Dierent.scenarios.and.energy-ecient.solutions.