Whetten David A., Cameron Kim S. Developing management skills

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GAINING POWER AND INFLUENCE CHAPTER 5 317

SKILL

APPLICATION

ACTIVITIES FOR GAINING POWER

AND INFLUENCE

Suggested Assignments

1. Select a friend or associate who has complained to you about feeling powerless in an

organizational position. This might be a person who holds a relatively insigniﬁcant

leadership position in a campus organization or a low-level position in a work orga-

nization. Perhaps the individual feels his or her personal abilities do not command

respect in that position. Sit down with this person and teach him or her the guide-

lines for gaining power in an organization. (You might use the Assessment Survey at

the beginning of this chapter as a diagnostic instrument.) As part of this conversa-

tion, design a speciﬁc plan of action for increasing both the position and personal

bases of power. Discuss the outcomes of this plan with your friend and report on his

or her success.

2. Using the guidelines for gaining power, develop a plan for increasing your power

in an organizational setting. Describe the setting, including the factors you feel

account for your feelings of powerlessness. Use your score on the Assessment

Survey as a diagnostic aid. Formulate a detailed strategy for increasing your posi-

tional and personal power. Report on your results and describe the benefits of

becoming more empowered.

3. Over time, analyze your efforts to influence other people. Use the “Three Rs”

model to catalog your strategies. Consider why you used each strategy. Did you

repeatedly rely on one or two strategies, or did you vary your approach according

to circumstances? Keep track of the outcome of each attempt. Did you seem to

have more success with one of the strategies? Next, select a person you have

attempted to inﬂuence, one with whom you have a close, ongoing relationship.

Discuss the alternative inﬂuence strategies with that person and ask him or her

what effect the frequent use of each approach might have on your relationship.

4. Watch at least two realistic dramas (movies, plays, TV). Observe the influence

strategies used by various characters. Which form of inﬂuence did they use most

frequently, and why? Did certain people demonstrate a preference for a particular

strategy? If so, was this based on personality traits, gender roles, authority rela-

tionships, or other situational factors? How successful were these influence

attempts, and what impact did they have on ongoing relationships?

5. Identify a speciﬁc relationship in which you are regularly asked to do things that you

feel are inappropriate. Using the relevant guidelines for resisting unwanted inﬂuence,

formulate a strategy for assertively responding to the next attempt. Role-play this

approach with a friend or coworker and incorporate his or her suggestions. After you

implement your plan, report on the outcome. What was the reaction? Were you suc-

cessful in communicating your position? Was an understanding reached regarding

future interactions that is more fair? Based on this experience, examine other rela-

tionships for which this approach might be appropriate.

318 CHAPTER 5 GAINING POWER AND INFLUENCE

Application Plan and Evaluation

The intent of this exercise is to help you apply this cluster of skills in a real-life, out-of-class setting. Now

that you have become familiar with the behavioral guidelines that form the basis of effective skill perfor-

mance, you will improve most by trying out those guidelines in an everyday context. Unlike a classroom

activity, in which feedback is immediate and others can assist you with their evaluations, this skill appli-

cation activity is one you must accomplish and evaluate on your own. There are two parts to this activ-

ity. Part 1 helps prepare you to apply the skill. Part 2 helps you evaluate and improve on your experience.

Be sure to write down answers to each item. Don’t short-circuit the process by skipping steps.

Part 1. Planning

1. Write down the two or three aspects of this skill that are most important to you. These may be

areas of weakness, areas you most want to improve, or areas that are most salient to a problem

you face right now. Identify the speciﬁc aspects of this skill that you want to apply.

2. Now identify the setting or the situation in which you will apply this skill. Establish a plan for per-

formance by actually writing down a description of the situation. Who else will be involved?

When will you do it? Where will it be done?

Circumstances:

Who else?

When?

Where?

3. Identify the specific behaviors you will engage in to apply this skill. Operationalize your skill

performance.

4. What are the indicators of successful performance? How will you know you have been effective?

What will indicate you have performed competently?

Part 2. Evaluation

5. After you have completed your implementation, record the results. What happened? How suc-

cessful were you? What was the effect on others?

6. How can you improve? What modiﬁcations can you make next time? What will you do differ-

ently in a similar situation in the future?

7. Looking back on your whole skill practice and application experience, what have you learned?

What has been surprising? In what ways might this experience help you in the long term?

SCORING KEYS

AND

COMPARISON DATA

Gaining Power and Inﬂuence

Scoring Key

SKILL AREA ITEM ASSESSMENT

PRE-POST-

Gaining power

Expertise (Personal Characteristics) 1 ______ ______

9 ______ ______

Interpersonal attraction 2 ______ ______

10 ______ ______

Effort 3 ______ ______

11 ______ ______

Legitimacy 4 ______ ______

12 ______ ______

Centrality (Position Characteristics) 5 ______ ______

13 ______ ______

Visibility 6 ______ ______

14 ______ ______

Flexibility 7 ______ ______

15 ______ ______

Relevance 8 ______ ______

16 ______ ______

Using inﬂuence 17 ______ ______

18 ______ ______

19 ______ ______

20 ______ ______

21 ______ ______

Resisting inﬂuence 22 ______ ______

23 ______ ______

24 ______ ______

Increasing authority 25 ______ ______

26 ______ ______

27 ______ ______

28 ______ ______

Total Score

______ ______

GAINING POWER AND INFLUENCE CHAPTER 5 319

320 CHAPTER 5 GAINING POWER AND INFLUENCE

Comparison Data (N = 5,000 Students)

Compare your scores to three comparison standards:

1. The maximum possible score = 168.

2. The scores of other students in your class.

3. Norm data from more than 5,000 business school students.

e-Test Post-Test

134.93 = mean = 142.95

145 or above = top quartile = 154 or above

136–144 = second quartile = 144–153

126–135 = third quartile = 134–143

125 or below = bottom quartile = 133 or below

Using Inﬂuence Strategies

Scoring Key

RETRIBUTION RECIPROCITY REASON

ITEM SCORE ITEM SCORE ITEM SCORE

1 ______ 2 ______ 3 ______

4 ______ 5 ______ 6 ______

7 ______ 8 ______ 9 ______

10 ______ 11 ______ 12 ______

13 ______ 14 ______ 15 ______

Total ______ Total ______ Total ______

Primary inﬂuence strategy (highest score): ______

Secondary inﬂuence strategy (second highest score): ______

GAINING POWER AND INFLUENCE CHAPTER 5 321

SKILL PRACTICE

Neutralizing Unwanted Inﬂuence Attempts

Observer’s Feedback Form

Rating

1 = Low

5 = High

Neutralizing Retribution Strategies

____________ 1. Used countervailing power to shift dependence to interdependence.

(Focused on the value of mutual respect and cooperation. Pointed out

the negative consequences to both parties of exploitation. If appropriate,

suggested alternatives.)

____________ 2. Confronted exploitative individuals directly. (Challenged the right to

intimidate and threaten. Stated what he/she was willing to do to

stop actions.)

____________ 3. If necessary, actively resisted. (If 1 and 2 failed, did what was

necessary to stop retribution attempts. Minimized consequences

of resistance on others.)

Neutralizing Reciprocity Strategies

____________ 4. Examined the intent of any gift-or favor-giving activity. (Asked questions

to determine the motivation behind favors.)

____________ 5. Confronted unfair bargaining practices, for example, escalating or

reciprocally compromising tactics. (Questioned unfair bargaining

tactics. Explored alternative ground rules.)

____________ 6. If necessary, refused to bargain with individuals who used high-pressure

tactics. (If 4 and 5 failed, terminated the negotiation process.)

Neutralizing Reason Strategies

____________ 7. Explained the negative effect of compliance on performance.

(Described effects on personal responsibilities of complying with

request. If appropriate, suggested options.)

____________ 8. Defended personal rights. (Assertively restated position, emphasizing

personal rights.)

____________ 9. If necessary, refused to comply with request. (If 7 and 8 failed,

politely but ﬁrmly terminated discussion.)

Comments:

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SKILL

ASSESSMENT

■ Diagnosing Poor Performance and Enhancing Motivation

■ Work Performance Assessment

SKILL

LEARNING

■ Increasing Motivation and Performance

■ Diagnosing Work Performance Problems

■ Enhancing Individuals’ Abilities

■ Fostering a Motivating Work Environment

■ Elements of an Effective Motivation Program

■ Summary

■ Behavioral Guidelines

SKILL

ANALYSIS

■ Electro Logic

SKILL

PRACTICE

■ Joe Chaney

■ Work Performance Assessment

■ Shaheen Matombo

SKILL

APPLICATION

■ Suggested Assignments

■ Application Plan and Evaluation

SCORING KEYS

AND

COMPARISON DATA

Motivating

Others

SKILL

DEVELOPMENT

OBJECTIVES

■ DIAGNOSE WORK

PERFORMANCE

PROBLEMS

■ ENHANCE THE WORK-RELATED

ABILITIES OF OTHERS

■ FOSTER A MOTIVATING

WORK ENVIRONMENT

323

324 CHAPTER 6 MOTIVATING OTHERS

SKILL

ASSESSMENT

DIAGNOSTIC SURVEYS

FOR MOTIVATING OTHERS

DIAGNOSING POOR PERFORMANCE

AND

ENHANCING MOTIVATION

Step 1: Before you read the material in this chapter, respond to the following statements by

writing a number from the rating scale that follows in the left-hand column (Pre-Assessment).

Your answers should reﬂect your attitudes and behaviors as they are now, not as you would

like them to be. Be honest. This instrument is designed to help you discover your level of

competency in motivating others so you can tailor your learning to your speciﬁc needs. When

you have completed the survey, use the scoring key at the end of the chapter to identify the

skill areas discussed in this chapter that are most important for you to master.

Step 2: After you have completed the reading and the exercises in this chapter and, ide-

ally, as many as you can of the Skill Application assignments at the end of the chapter,

cover up your ﬁrst set of answers. Then respond to the same statements again, this time

in the right-hand column (Post-Assessment). When you have completed the survey, use

the scoring key at the end of the chapter to measure your progress. If your score remains

low in speciﬁc skill areas, use the behavioral guidelines at the end of the Skill Learning

section to guide your further practice.

Rating Scale

1 Strongly disagree

2 Disagree

3 Slightly disagree

4 Slightly agree

5 Agree

6 Strongly agree

Assessment

Pre- Post-

When another person needs to be motivated:

______ ______ 1. I approach a performance problem by ﬁrst establishing whether it is caused by a lack

of motivation or ability.

______ ______ 2. I establish a clear standard of expected performance.

______ ______ 3. I offer to provide training and information, without offering to do tasks myself.

______ ______ 4. I am honest and straightforward in providing feedback on performance and assessing

advancement opportunities.

______ ______ 5. I use a variety of rewards to reinforce exceptional performances.

______ ______ 6. When discipline is required, I give speciﬁc suggestions for improvement.

______ ______ 7. I design task assignments to make them interesting and challenging.

______ ______ 8. I provide the rewards that each person values.

MOTIVATING OTHERS CHAPTER 6 325

______ ______ 9. I make sure that people feel fairly and equitably treated.

______ ______ 10. I make sure that people get timely feedback from those affected by task performance.

______ ______ 11. I carefully diagnose the causes of poor performance before taking any remedial or dis-

ciplinary action.

______ ______ 12. I help people establish performance goals that are challenging, speciﬁc, and time bound.

______ ______ 13. Only as a last resort do I attempt to reassign or release a poorly performing individual.

______ ______ 14. Whenever possible, I make sure valued rewards are linked to high performance.

______ ______ 15. I discipline when effort is below expectations and below capabilities.

______ ______ 16. I combine or rotate assignments so that people can use a variety of skills.

______ ______ 17. I arrange for an individual to work with others in a team, for the mutual support of all.

______ ______ 18. I make sure that people use realistic standards for measuring fairness.

______ ______ 19. I provide immediate compliments and other forms of recognition for meaningful

accomplishments.

______ ______ 20. I determine if a person has the necessary resources and support to succeed in a task.

WORK PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

Respond to the following statements, based on your current (or recent) work situation.

Then turn to the scoring key at the end of this chapter.

Rating Scale

1 Strongly disagree

2 Disagree

3 Neutral

4 Agree

5 Strongly agree

_______ 1. My supervisor and I agree on the quality of my performance.

_______ 2. I feel I have adequate training to perform my current job assignments.

_______ 3. I believe that my native skills and abilities are matched very well with my job

responsibilities.

_______ 4. I believe that I have adequate resources and supplies to do my job well.

_______ 5. I understand my boss’s expectations and generally feel they are realistic.

_______ 6. I believe that rewards are distributed fairly, on the basis of performance.

_______ 7. The rewards and opportunities available to me if I perform well are attractive to

me personally.

_______ 8. My supervisor indicates that I am not performing as well as I should, but

I disagree.

_______ 9. I could do a much better job if I had more training.

_______ 10. I believe that my job is too difﬁcult for my ability level.

_______ 11. I believe that my job performance is hindered by a lack of supplies and resources.

_______ 12. I believe my boss’s expectations are unclear and unrealistic.

_______ 13. I believe my boss plays favorites in allocating rewards.

_______ 14. I do not ﬁnd the rewards and opportunities available to high performers

very appealing.

326 CHAPTER 6 MOTIVATING OTHERS

method was for motivating professional basketball

players. “I don’t motivate my players. You cannot moti-

vate someone, all you can do is provide a motivating

environment and the players will motivate them-

selves” (Jackson, 2000). We believe the imagery of

“manager-as-coach” and “motivation-as-facilitation”

suggested by this interview with one of the most suc-

cessful coaches of our time provides the appropriate

backdrop for our discussion. Whether managers are

working with a group of steel workers, computer pro-

grammers, artists, or basketball players, they face a

common challenge of fostering a motivating work

environment.

The core of this chapter outlines a six-step process

for accomplishing this goal. But ﬁrst, to set the stage

for this discussion, we begin with one of the most net-

tlesome problems facing managers—how to correctly

identify the underlying causes of a speciﬁc employee’s

poor performance.

Diagnosing Work

Performance Problems

Let’s begin by examining the case for managers sharp-

ening their skills for diagnosing work performance

problems. There is a tendency for supervisors to

attribute the cause of poor performance to low motiva-

tion (Bitter & Gardner, 1995). That is, when employees

fail to meet performance expectations, supervisors tend

to blame this outcome on insufficient effort—often

expressed in terms of a lack of interest or commitment.

The tendency to make assumptions about why things

happen, without the beneﬁt of scrutiny, is an example

of what psychologists call an attribution (Ross, 1977;

Choi, Nisbett, & Norenzayan, 1999). Because supervi-

sors generally believe that if they work harder they will

perform better, they assume their own experience

applies to other organizational positions and work envi-

ronments. The problem with this approach to problem

diagnosis is that it lends itself to simplistic solutions,

reminiscent of the Chinese proverb, “For every hun-

dred men hacking away at the leaves of a diseased tree,

only one man stoops to inspect the roots.”

Let’s consider one increasingly common set of

work conditions that illustrates the need to “stoop

and inspect the roots” of observed poor worker perfor-

mance. It is estimated that one-third of American

Increasing Motivation

and Performance

Focus groups at Intermountain Health Care (IHC), a

Utah-based health care organization with more than

23,000 employees, revealed that a majority of front-

line workers would not leave their jobs unless another

employer offered them a 20 percent increase in pay

and a 30 percent increase in benefits. Such commit-

ment and motivation toward employed work is an

extremely valued commodity in our current economy.

Most organizations struggle to retain their best

employees and to motivate them to high performance.

The comments from three front-line workers at IHC

reveal that their commitment has been won through

the motivating and rewarding work environment they

experience and the values IHC reinforces (Interview

with Alison Mackey).

“I have never worked at a place where people

have been so concerned about their employees. And

because of that we can turn around and give the same

to our customers.”

“I think [IHC] is a system that’s concerned about

its employees and as a result it can attract employees

with strong technical and people-based knowledge and

experience.”

“The values that IHC stands for make me never

want to leave” (IHC Employee Opinion Survey

Database).

The efforts IHC has taken to create such a moti-

vating work environment have improved its clinical

care and its bottom line. Modern Healthcare honored

IHC in January 2000 as the number-one integrated

health care system in America. President and Chief

Executive Ofﬁcer (CEO) William H. Nelson attributes

its clinical success and national recognition to its

employees (IHC Annual Report, 1999).

Organizations like IHC that have highly motivated

and committed employees are well equipped to compete

in any market, be it health care or heavy industry. But

like any distinctive competence, employee commitment

is difﬁcult to achieve—if it were otherwise it would have

no competitive value. The focus of this chapter is on cre-

ating work environments where employees are highly

productive and highly motivated.

After winning an unprecedented seventh NBA

title as a coach, Phil Jackson was asked what his

SKILL

LEARNING