Roberts A.D. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7: from 1905 to 1940
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I 3 EAST AFRICA
The best introduction to German East Africa is Iliffe's A
modern history
of
Tanganyika;
this draws on much recent research
as well as on Iliffe's own earlier study of Rechenberg's governor-
ship,
and it offers a more careful analysis of ecological change than
Kjekshus. There is useful economic data in
Tetzlaff;
see also
Gann's essay in Duignan and Gann (p. 891). German adminis-
trators have been studied by Gann and Duignan (pp. 883, 888);
there are also accounts of scientific research (Bald and Bald), the
press (Pipping-Van Hulten) and language policy (Brumfit).
Austen made a pioneering study of colonial rule in Mwanza and
Bukoba districts; other regional studies include Ekemode, Larson,
Shorter, and Gwassa's work on Maji Maji (see Ogot, p. 975; and
Ranger and Kimambo, p. 900). Louis remains the only general
study of German rule in Ruanda-Urundi; there are briefer studies
of Ruanda by Chretien and Lugan. Ryckmans' account of Burundi
was written on the spot in 1918. Relevant work on Christian
missions, by Eggert, Linden, Nolan, Sicard and Wright, is listed
on pp. 897-903, and an article by Martin on the Qadiriyya on
p.
904.
Iliffe's history of Tanganyika is the most comprehensive study
of social change under colonial rule for any part of black Africa.
Other works deal more fully with aspects of colonial government.
On the civil service, see Morris-Hale (and also Heussler); on
economic policy, Leubuscher and McCarthy (who has also written
on currency: p. 893); on indirect rule, Austen (in Gifford and
Louis,
p. 883). There is a biography of Cameron (Gailey, p. 939).
Sweet and Shivji look at the law on land and labour. Liebenow's
study of the Makonde throws much light on our period; other
regional studies, by Austen, Larson and Shorter, have been listed
under German East Africa. Rogers examines Chaga coffee-
growing; Ranger, missionary medical work in the south-east;
Wilson, relations between generations and the sexes in the south.
Iliffe has brought together thirteen relevant biographies of
Africans; see also Westcott. Relevant studies of Christianity (listed
on pp. 897-903) include Eggert, Hellberg, Wilson, Wright and
Ranger
(1971,
and in Ranger and Kimambo). Nimtz's study of
Sufism is listed on p. 904. Work on Asian communities is largely
confined to Walji's thesis on Isma'llls. The collection by Kaniki
and Gwassa (based on lectures at the University of Dar es Salaam)
focuses on external economic and cultural pressures. Much useful
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
information may
be
gathered from
the
handbooks edited
by
Moffett.
It has been easier for foreign scholars to work in Kenya than
perhaps anywhere else in independent Africa, and much research
has also been done by Kenyan historians. The secondary literature
is thus very large: there are
at
least thirty unpublished doctoral
theses concerning our period, and many relevant articles have
appeared
not
only
in
journals
but in
Hadith (ed. Ogot),
the
proceedings
of the
Kenya Historical Association. However,
knowledge has not always been advanced in proportion to effort,
and
the
Oxford History (especially chapters
by
Wrigley
and
Bennett) is less familiar than it should be, even though it remains
the only general study of Kenya's colonial past.
White settlement has attracted much research since Weigt's
pioneering work and Elspeth Huxley's biography
of
Delamere.
There are studies of the early years (Sorrenson, Mungeam), the
1920s (Redley), economic performance (Mosley, Yoshida) and
labour recruitment (van Zwanenberg). Lonsdale and Berman
probe the contradictions for government in assisting settlers while
dependent
on
African production; Wylie shows
the
Colonial
Office caught
in
cross-fire. Clayton and Savage examine official
labour policy
in
magisterial detail; see also Savage and Munro,
and Berman
and
Lonsdale. Stichter outlines
the
growth
of
migrant labour. A collection by Rotberg (p. 894) includes essays
on coastal labour (Cooper) and pastoralism (Spencer). Kitching
has investigated African strategies for combining farming with
wage labour. Swainson throws some light on expatriate business
firms; Ghai and McAuslan on the administration of justice; and
Wolf on recruitment to the police. The history of
Asians
in Kenya
is insufficiently understood; meanwhile, see Soff and Spencer as
well
as
Gregory (p. 974). Language policy has been studied by
Gorman, and other aspects of educational history are treated by
Heyman (in Battle and Lyons, p. 882), Kipkorir and Schilling as
well as King (p. 975), Anderson and Greaves (pp. 895, 897). The
history of Christianity may be traced in several other works, listed
on pp. 897-902, by Gration, Lonsdale, Macpherson, Mclntosh,
Murray, Sangree, Strayer, Wanyoike, Ward, Welbourn and Ogot.
Biographical essays, mainly on Africans, have been collected by
King and Salim and by Kipkorir; see also Murray
on
Owen,
Roelker on Mathu (p. 912), Murray-Brown on Kenyatta (p. 911).
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I 3 EAST AFRICA
Much research
in
Kenya has been focused on particular areas
or ethnic groups:
the
coast (Salim, Cooper,
p.
982), Giriama
(Brantley), Kamba (Munro, Newman, Tignor), Kikuyu (Coray,
Feldman, Kanogo, Rosberg
and
Nottingham, Tignor),
Luo
(Hay),
Masai (King, Tignor), Nandi (Ellis), Nyanza (Fearn),
Somali (Turton, Dalleo (p. 986)), Taveta (Frontera), Turkana
(Lamphear), western Kenya (Lonsdale,
in
Rotberg and Mazrui
(p.
883); Bode and van Zwanenberg,
in
Ojuka and Ochieng';
Ogot and Ochieng'
in
Ogot (p. 975)). The study
of
Africans
in
towns has been pioneered by van Zwanenberg, Bujra and White
(Nairobi) and Strobel (Mombasa); the three last-named, like Hay,
discuss the experience of women.
Historical research
in
Uganda was given
a
head start
in the
1950s by scholars based on Makerere College and the East African
Institute
of
Social Research, but by 1970
it
had become virtually
impossible. More than elsewhere in East Africa, the student must
look to work done
a
generation ago. Fortunately, this is of high
quality:
the
essays
by
Low, Ehrlich and Pratt
for
the Oxford
History; Low
and
Pratt
on
Buganda; Powesland
on
migrant
labour (see also Richards), Wrigley on cash-crops and Gutkind
on the Ganda capital. These writers had in turn been able to draw
upon valuable compilations
by
officials: Thomas
and
Scott,
Tothill, and Thomas and Spencer. Former officials have made
fundamental studies
of
legal change (Morris)
and
land policy
(West).
Much other research
on
our period has had
a
regional
focus.
Tosh's work on Lango gives rare insights into the politics
of a society where chiefs were
a
colonial innovation; other areas
studied include Ankole (Doornbos), Buganda (Morris, Twaddle),
Bukedi (Twaddle), Bunyoro (Dunbar), Busoga (Nayenga),
Karamoja (Barber), Kigezi (E. Hopkins, in Rotberg and Mazrui
(p.
883); Turyahikayo-Rugema), Lugbara (King), Teso (Vail,
Vincent), Toro (Ingham). Some
of
these studies reflect
the
' radical pessimism' of many Africanists in the
1970s,
and Mamdani
offers
a
modern history
of
Uganda
in
terms
of
class formation:
he pays special attention to the economic role of Asians (see also
Jamal).
There have been several studies
of
the Christian impact
(listed on pp. 897-902): by Gale, Hansen, Pirouet, Robins, Taylor,
Tuma, Vignato and Waliggo. Oded has studied an African Judaic
movement.
On
education,
see
Carter, McGregor
and
Motani;
on African writing, Rowe
and
Twaddle
(p.
912);
on the
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
press,
Scotton. Soff
has
examined
the
control
of
sleeping-
sickness.
For some years after independence
it
was very hard
to do
research
in
Zanzibar. There are several outlines
of
our period
(Flint,
in
the Oxford History; Bennett, Lofchie), but only two
special studies: Gregory on Asians (p. 974) and Cooper on the
plantation economy. On local government, see Hailey (p. 967).
14.
ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
Ethiopia
Menelik's introduction of European-style administration created
a mass
of
paper. Something
of
what the Italians removed
in
1936—40 has been returned, but the organisation
of
a national
archive
is
still
in
progress.
A
few state papers, together with
private records
in
Amharic and Arabic, have been deposited
at
the National Library and
in
the Institute
of
Ethiopian Studies,
Addis Ababa University. The university's law faculty began an
archive of Ethiopian law (Selamu Bekele and Vanderlinden), but
this mostly covers the period since
1945.
Macomber and Getachew
Haile have catalogued 1500 out of nearly 7000 Geez and Amharic
manuscripts microfilmed jointly
by the
patriarchate
of the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the Hill Monastic Manuscript
Library, St. John's Abbey and University, Collegeville, Minne-
sota; these include information on land and taxation. Records of
the former mission
to the
Oromo are kept
at the
Ethiopian
Catholic Church, Adama, Shewa. Aren (p. 895) indicates
the
papers inherited by the Ethiopian Evangelical Church (Mekane
Yesus) from its Protestant missionary founders.
Italian records
of
the Fascist occupation
are
stored
at the
ministry of foreign affairs in Rome: see the guide by Giglio and
Lodolini listed under UNESCO
on p.
880. British diplomatic
records illuminate
the
internal
as
well
as
external history
of Ethiopia (cf. Caplan,
p.
884), but such possibilities are not
indicated in the UNESCO volume of French archives. Those of
Belgium and Sweden (the other countries most involved with
Ethiopia before 1940) have also yet
to
be probed (though see
Norberg). The archives
of
the USA
are
more important
for
Ethiopia than appears from the otherwise exhaustive guide by
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14 ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
South (p. 880). The Ottoman archives contain documents
on
Ethiopia's relations with the Central Powers
in
the First World
War: see Orhonlu. The continuing value for our period
of
files
in the Central Records Office, Khartoum, has been demonstrated
by Triulzi (1974) and Bahru Zewde.
There are three recent bibliographies on Ethiopia (Alula Hidaru
and Dessalegn Rahmato; Brown; Prouty and Rosenfeld),
but
none supersedes Marcus (1972) or the bibliographies appended to
de Coppet's edition
of
Guebre Sellassie, Coffey
or
Pankhurst
(1968).
The wealth of Ethiopian materials for the first decades of
the twentieth century was first revealed
by
Garretson (1978),
though there is
a
catalogue by Wright of early printed books
in
Amharic, updated
by
Strelcyn
(in
the collection
by
Tubiana).
Cerulli and others contributed inventories of Amharic publications
to Oriente
Moderno:
these
are
cited
by
Gerard and Kane (pp.
910-11). For Russian travellers before 1914, see Darch.
A few early edicts were published, with translations, by Eadie
(p.
909); from
1924,
edicts were regularly printed in the French-run
weekly
Le
Courrier
d'Ethiopie
(1913,
1917—36),
but an
official
gazette did not appear until 1936.
A
collection
of
edicts and
documents spanning the period 1910-40 was edited by Mahteme
Sellassie,
a
former minister
of
the pen. There
is a
chronicle of
Menelik's reign
by his
chief secretary, Guebre Sellassie;
it
concludes
in
1909. Other contemporary publications by Ethio-
pians are listed
on p.
909:
for the
views
of a
critic
in
exile,
See Afewerq Gebre. The writings of Gebre Heywet Baykedagn are
a fundamental source for the thought of the Young Ethiopians;
the essay on Menelik has been translated into Italian by Fusella.
In the 1930s Ernest Work (p. 909) wrote a doctoral thesis in Ohio
on Ethiopia's external problems; Melaku Beyene pleaded
his
country's cause as the exiled emperor's special envoy to the USA.
The leading Amharic weekly newspapers
of
the period were
Aemro (Intelligence) (1924-35) and
Berhane-na Selam
(Light and
Peace) (1925-35); the only complete collection of these is in the
British Library.
Haile Sellassie set down his own recollections when
in
exile;
they were published
a
year before his overthrow in 1974 and on
several important subjects are disappointingly reticent. The first
volume, translated by Ullendorff, goes up to 1936. Other memoirs
in Amharic, not translated and not listed here, include first-hand
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
accounts
of
resistance
to the
Italians
by
Feleqe Dagne
and
Taddesse Zewelde. Gandar Dower recorded interviews with
partisans, and the autobiography of Gidada, an Oromo mission
teacher, recounts his conversion and the sufferings of his church
under Fascism.
Steffanson and Starret have published selections from relevant
records
of
the
US
State Department. Britain published
one
consular report
on
economic conditions
in
1929-31.
Rochat's
critical study of the Italian invasion includes 200 pages of official
records for 1932-6. The Ethiopian ministry of justice published
Italian documents captured after
the
liberation, along with
testimony from survivors. Orhonlu's collection
of
Ottoman
records on Ethiopia includes many on the period 1900-1917.
There
is a
wide-ranging, though little-known, study of Ethiopia
by Rein,
a
German who made several extended visits from the
Sudan. Foreign residents left
a
rich and varied literature. The
doctor and pharmacist Merab provides a fund of information and
gossip about Addis Ababa from 1908
to
1914 and during the
1920s. The trader Zervos was
a
brother of Ras Tafari's doctor;
he gives an encyclopaedic,
if
not always accurate, description of
government departments, merchants
and the
foreign
com-
munities, as well as brief sketches of each province, and articles
on aspects of the economy. Paleologos was
a
customs official in
the capital
in
the 1920s. The events
of
1928-30 were described
by Zoli, then governor
of
Eritrea,
on the
basis
of
Italian
documents and his own enquiries in Addis Ababa. The diaries of
John Melly,
a
British medical missionary
in
Addis Ababa from
1934 to 1936, were posthumously edited by Nelson and Sullivan.
The Italian doctor Borra served as
a
go-between in 1934-5.
For
the
provinces before 1936 there
are
several valuable
reports. The explorer Montandon gave
a
careful account of the
country west
of
Kaffa before
its
destruction
by
government
garrisons. The archaeologists Azais and Chambard made close
observations
of
Oromo and Gurage customs, and the linguist
Cerulli also travelled among
the
Oromo. Walker,
the
British
consul in Wollega, knew Amharic well and published an excellent
study of social custom and common law; his successor Hodson's
accounts
of
the west and south-west
are
more opinionated.
Darley,
a
British army officer, gave
a
highly coloured picture of
the slave-trade in the south-west in 1909 and 1919; Cheesman, the
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14 ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
British consul near Lake Tana in 1925-34, reported the limited
success of abolition. The anthropologist Marcel Griaule traversed
northern Ethiopia in 1932—3 and his secretary Leiris published a
journal.
Accounts of the war of 1935—6 were soon published by the
successive commanders-in-chief for Italian East Africa, de Bono
and Badoglio, and also by Graziani. From the Ethiopian side there
are accounts by Konovaloff, a White Russian officer, and by
Macfie, a British Red Cross officer. The invasion was well
described by Steer, correspondent for The Times (who quotes at
length from Konovaloff), and the Italian journalist Poggiali kept
a candid diary of the first eighteen months of the occupation; the
memoirs of the officials Lenzi, Pierotti and Nasi are also revealing.
The Fascist administration commissioned descriptive local re-
ports and these have some value: cf. Brotto, Lifonti, Moreno. The
invasion prompted articles by two foreign residents: Spencer (p.
885),
who succeeded Colson as financial adviser to the emperor,
and Sandford, who had farmed near the capital since 1922.
Two general works of reference, both elderly, are worth listing
here:
the bulky
Handbook
of
Abyssinia
produced in 1917 by the
British Admiralty, and the conscientious guidebook for Italian
East Africa published in 1938 by the Consociazione Turistica
Italiana (p. 986). There is a short historical dictionary (Prouty
and Rosenfeld). The most recent, though not the most reliable,
general history of Ethiopia came from Poland in 1971: Bartnicki
and Mantel-Niecko. In English there is still no adequate general
history of the country. The brief sketch by Jones and Monroe was
rushed out at the time of the Italian invasion and has not been
revised. There is much more detail in Greenfield, but this is a
contentious and essentially dynastic narrative which is in any case
more useful for the period since 1950. Perham's study of Ethiopian
government includes much material on the years before 1936,
though it is unduly preoccupied with legal appearances. Marcus's
survey of Menelik's reign concludes with a summary of what
Allied diplomats said about Iyasu. Most academic studies of
Ethiopian politics during our period have been exclusively
concerned with external relations. Listed here are studies of
Ethiopian relations with Germany by Scholler (in the Tubiana
collection) and Balru Tafia. Other works are listed on pp.
883-6:
on Britain and Italy, Iadarola and Toynbee; on the years
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
before 1930, Buccianti, Caplan and Keefer; on the 'Abyssinian
crisis',
Baer, Hardie, Harris, Laurens, E. M. Robertson, Toynbee,
Waley; on British policy, J. C. Robertson; on Ethiopia's frontiers,
Hamilton (see also Barber,
p.
980). Ross and Scott (p. 912)
discuss relations between black Americans and Ethiopia. The
collection of conference papers edited by Tubiana includes ten on
our period; among the subjects treated are the revolt in Wollega
in 1902-12 (Triulzi), the Bank
of
Abyssinia (Genoino) and the
Versailles Peace Conference (Labrousse). The collection edited by
Hess includes articles on Gebre Heywet Baykedagn (Caulk), the
inter-war economy (Marcus), northern Sidamo (McClellan) and
resistance to Italian rule (Sbacchi). There are seven relevant papers
in Rubenson's collection, and material on the Young Ethiopians
in the collection by the pseudonymous Addis Hiwet.
Recent literature on Italy and Ethiopia in the 1930s has been
critically reviewed by Triulzi. Italian preparations for invading
Ethiopia have been examined by Rochat. The story
of
the war
itself
has
recently been told by Barker, del Boca, Coffey and Mori;
see also Rouaud. Pankhurst and Sbacchi have written extensively
on the war and on the occupation; most of their articles are listed
by Prouty and Rosenfeld. There is an important compilation film
on the war by Becker. Quaranta's book is Fascist propaganda de-
spite its foreword by Lord Hailey. Other relevant works are listed
below under 'coastal territories'. The war of liberation is placed
by Bongiovanni
in the
context
of
Italian history.
Del
Boca
includes
a
sympathetic account
of
Ethiopian resistance, but this
is likely to be superseded by
a
forthcoming study in English, based
on Patriot papers, by Tsehay Berhane Sellassie. Not listed here
are Amharic histories
of
resistance
by
Taddesse Zewelde and
Gerima Tefere.
The analytical study of Ethiopia's modern economic history has
scarcely begun, though Pankhurst's unsystematic compendium
(1968) is a useful introduction to published materials. Loepfe has
made
a
study
of
the financial diplomacy behind the building of
the Djibouti railway; like Garretson's history
of
Addis Ababa,
this is more concerned with the years before 1905. There is a help-
ful study of Ethiopian land tenure by Mantel-Niecko. Stahl offers
a provocative interpretation of the past century. There are local
studies of Shoa (Berhanou Abbebe) and Sidama (McClellan); for
Arussi during our period see Braukamper. For land tenure
in
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14 ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
Eritrea, see below under 'coastal territories'. Greek traders have
been studied by Natsoulas, and Swedish activities by Norberg.
Religious history includes studies of foreign missions, e.g. by
Aren and Cotterell, and theses by Shenk and Mikre-Sellassie on
the Ethiopian Church (pp. 895-901). Crummey has studied a
prophetic shaykh (p. 903). Teshome Wagaw, de Marco and
Pankhurst have written on educational history, while Gerard,
Kane and Molvaer (pp. 910-11) contribute to the history of
Amharic literature. Biography has been a favourite medium for
both Ethiopian and foreign writers. Relevant Amharic authors,
not listed here, include Heruy Walde Sellassie, Mahteme Sellassie
and Haile Giyorgis; see also obituaries in the newspaper Addis
Zemen (June 1947, February 1964). Works in English include
studies of Menelik and Iyasu (Marcus) and Haile Sellassie (Princess
Asfa Yilma, p. 909; Mosley). Aleme Eshete has investigated
Russian exiles. For Eritrean biography, see Puglisi as listed under
' coastal territories'. The Ethiopian section of the Encyclopaedia
Africana's biographical dictionary (see p. 882) does not do justice
to the available materials. Numerous articles on aspects of our
period have been published in the Ethiopia
Observer,
the
Journal
of Ethiopian Studies, Northeast African Studies and
Kassegna
di Studi
Etiopici.
The
coastal
territories
There is no account of archives in Somalia, but the Italian archives
(cf. p. 866) throw much light on its internal history; relevant
records in Europe, the USA and Kenya are surveyed by Dalleo.
The Italian archives include much material on Eritrea, and the
British archives contain not only material on British Somaliland
but also retrospective accounts of Eritrea set down by Italians
after their defeat in
1941.
Records left there by the Italians are not
accessible (apart from fragments appended to student theses at
Addis Ababa) and the condition of Lutheran records of Eritrea
is uncertain, but the Catholic cathedral at Asmara has kept the
archives of the former bishop apostolic to northern Ethiopia: see
da Nembro (p. 900). As for archives in Djibouti, some may have
been transferred to Aix-en-Provence, and the records of the
French colonial ministry are important for the area (cf. Picquart).
There is a bibliography of the Horn by Marcus (1972), listed
under Ethiopia. For Italian Somaliland, Mohamed Khalief Salad
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
is helpful, while the bibliography
in
Castagno lists published
Somali texts by Muhammad 'Abdallah Hasan and others; see also
Somali Republic and Istituto Italo-Africano.
For
Eritrea,
see
Kassahun Checole; early printed books from Eritrea are discussed
by Strelcyn (in the collection on Ethiopia edited by Tubiana).
Texts and translations of poems by Sayyid Muhammad 'Abdallah
Hasan are included in Andrzejewski and Lewis (p. 909). From the
British side, there are memoirs by Rayne (a district officer) and
Archer (deputy commissioner, 1913—22). De Vecchi wrote his
own account of
his
belligerent governorship; Cimmaruta, a
banda
commander, gave his own version of events at Walwal. Further
views
by
senior officials
are
expounded
by
Zoli (1937)
and
Kittermaster.
For Somali history
in
general, Lewis provides
a
good intro-
duction, though the 1980 edition makes no use of recent research;
there is a useful historical dictionary by Castagno. The Arab factor
has been examined by Hersi. There
is as
yet no study
of
any
pastoral people
in
north-east Africa which parallels Dalleo's
analysis of economic change among Somali migrants to Kenya.
The career
of
Sayyid Muhammad 'Abdallah Hasan has been
surveyed by Hess (1964, 1968), while Martin places him
in
the
context of Islamic history; see also Lewis (p. 904), Said Samatar
(p.
912) and Turton (p. 979).
The official guide
to
Italian East Africa
is
still useful (Con-
sociazione Turistica),
as is the
collection
of
essays edited
by
Sillani. The fullest recent history
is
by del Boca. More general
studies of Italian empire-building, by Bosworth, Costanzo, Hess,
Mack Smith, Miege, Robertson and Zaghi,
are
listed
on pp.
884-6.
The
Italian foreign ministry's series Italia
in
Africa
includes accounts of agriculture (Bologna et
al.)
and the adminis-
tration
of
justice (Mellana, 1971-2)
in
Italian East Africa;
de
Marco's study
of
Italian education policy does not analyse
its
impact on Africans. There is little specifically on Eritrea
in
our
period: apart from essays on its economy in the collections edited
by Sillani and Tubiana (see p. 985), there are only accounts of its
peoples by Nadel and Pollera; brief studies of land tenure by Nadel
and Villari; some relevant biographies in Puglisi's compilation;
and da Nembro's study of Capuchin missionaries (p. 900). Italian
Somaliland is better served. There is much detail on Italian rule
in Barile and Corni; see also Grassi. Among recent studies, both
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