Richard L. Daft - Management. 9th ed., 2010

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

PART 5 LEADING420

Situation: Favorable or Unfavorable? The suitability of a person’s

leadership style is determined by whether the situation is favorable

or unfavorable to the leader. The favorability of a leadership situation

can be analyzed in terms of three elements: the quality of relationships

between leader and followers, the degree of task structure, and the

extent to which the leader has formal authority over followers.

A situation would be considered highly favorable to the leader when

leader-member relationships are positive, tasks are highly structured,

and the leader has formal authority over followers. In this situation,

followers trust, respect, and have con dence in the leader. The group’s

tasks are clearly de ned, involve speci c procedures, and have clear,

explicit goals. In addition, the leader has formal authority to direct and

evaluate followers, along with the power to reward or punish. A situ-

ation would be considered highly unfavorable to the leader when lead-

er-member relationships are poor, tasks are highly unstructured, and

the leader has little formal authority. In a highly unfavorable situation,

followers have little respect for or con dence and trust in the leader.

Tasks are vague and ill-de ned and lacking in clear-cut procedures and

guidelines. The leader has little formal authority to direct subordinates

and does not have the power to issue rewards or punishments.

Matching Leader Style to the Situation

Combining the three situational characteristics yields a variety of lead-

ership situations, ranging from highly favorable to highly unfavorable.

When Fiedler examined the relationships among leadership style and situational

favorability, he found the pattern shown in Exhibit 14.6. Task-oriented leaders are more

effective when the situation is either highly favorable or highly unfavorable. Relation-

ship-oriented leaders are more effective in situations of moderate favorability.

The task-oriented leader excels in the favorable situation because everyone gets

along, the task is clear, and the leader has power; all that is needed is for some-

one to lead the charge and provide direction. Similarly, if the situation is highly

unfavorable to the leader, a great deal of structure and task direction is needed. A

strong leader will de ne task structure and establish authority over subordinates.

EXHIBIT 14.6 How Leader Style Fits the Situation

SOURCE: Based on Fred E. Fiedler, “The Effects of Leadership Training and Experience: A Contingency Model Interpretation,” Administrative Science

Quarterly 17 (1972): 455.

At Earnest Partners,

an asset management ﬁ rm in Atlanta, Georgia,

the quality of leader-member relationships is

high. CEO Paul Viera has gained the respect and

trust of colleagues and followers because he

has proven that he has the integrity, skills, and

commitment to keep the company thriving. Viera

can be characterized as a task-oriented leader

because he is focused, prepared, and competitive,

and he expects others to be as well. According to

Fielder’s contingency theory, Viera’s style succeeds

at Earnest because of positive leader-member

relations, strong leader position power, and jobs

that contain some degree of task structure.

CHAPTER 14 LEADERSHIP 421

Leading

Because leader-member relations are poor anyway, a strong task orientation will

make no difference in the leader’s popularity. For example, researchers at the

University of Chicago looked at CEOs of companies in turnaround situations—

where companies typically have high debt loads and a need to improve results

in a hurry—and found that tough-minded, task-focused characteristics such as

analytical skills, a focus on ef ciency, and setting high standards were more valu-

able leader qualities that were relationships skills such as good communication,

listening, and teamwork.

The relationship-oriented leader performs better in situations of intermediate

favorability because human relations skills are important in achieving high group

performance. In these situations, the leader may be moderately well liked, have some

power, and supervise jobs that contain some ambiguity. A leader with good interper-

sonal skills can create a positive group atmosphere that will improve relationships,

clarify task structure, and establish position power.

A leader, then, needs to know two things to use Fiedler’s contingency theory.

First, the leader should know whether he or she has a relationship- or task-oriented

style. Second, the leader should diagnose the situation and determine whether leader-

member relations, task structure, and position power are favorable or unfavorable.

Fiedler believed  tting leader style to the situation can yield big dividends in

pro ts and ef ciency.

On the other hand, the model has also been criticized.

For

one thing, some researchers have challenged the idea that leaders cannot adjust their

styles as situational characteristics change. Despite criticisms, Fiedler’s model has

continued to in uence leadership studies. Fiedler’s research called attention to the

importance of  nding the correct  t between leadership style and the situation.

As a new manager, remember that different situations and different followers may

require different approaches to leadership. Pay attention to the situation and the

followers to determine how much structure and direction you need to provide.

Substitutes for Leadership

The contingency leadership approaches considered so far focus on the leaders’ style,

the subordinates’ nature, and the situation’s characteristics. The  nal contingency

approach suggests that situational variables can be so powerful that they actually

substitute for or neutralize the need for leadership.

This approach outlines those

organizational settings in which a leadership style is unimportant or unnecessary.

Exhibit 14.7 shows the situational variables that tend to substitute for or neutral-

ize leadership characteristics. A substitute for leadership makes the leadership style

unnecessary or redundant. For example, highly professional subordinates who know

how to do their tasks do not need a leader who initiates structure for them and tells

them what to do. A neutralizer counteracts the leadership style and prevents the

TakeaMoment

sub

stitute

situationa

vari

es a

unn

ece

ssa

red

und

ant

eutra

izer A

tuat

l v

hat

cou

acts

lea

ip sty

e an

prevents t

rom

isp

aying certain

aviors.

EXHIBIT 14.7

Substitutes and Neutralizers

for Leadership

Variable

Task-Oriented

Leadership

People-Oriented

Leadership

Organizational variables Group cohesiveness

Formalization

Inﬂ exibility

Low position power

Physical separation

Substitutes for

Neutralizes

Substitutes for

No effect on

Neutralizes

Task characteristics Highly structured task

Automatic feedback

Intrinsic satisfaction

Substitutes for

No effect on

Substitutes for

Group characteristics Professionalism

Training/experience

Substitutes for

No effect on

PART 5 LEADING422

leader from displaying certain behaviors. For example, if a leader has absolutely no

position power or is physically removed from subordinates, the leader’s ability to

give directions to subordinates is greatly reduced.

Situational variables in Exhibit 14.7 include characteristics of the group, the task,

and the organization itself. When followers are highly professional and experienced,

both leadership styles are less important. People do not need much direction or con-

sideration. With respect to task characteristics, highly structured tasks substitute for

a task-oriented style, and a satisfying task substitutes for a people-oriented style.

With respect to the organization itself, group cohesiveness substitutes for both leader

styles. Formalized rules and procedures substitute for leader task orientation. Physi-

cal separation of leader and subordinate neutralizes both leadership styles.

The value of the situations described in Exhibit 14.7 is that they help leaders

avoid leadership overkill. Leaders should adopt a style with which to complement

the organizational situation. Consider the work situation for bank tellers. A bank

teller performs highly structured tasks, follows clear written rules and procedures,

and has little  exibility in terms of how to do the work. The head teller should not

adopt a task-oriented style, because the organization already provides structure and

direction. The head teller should concentrate on a people-oriented style to provide

a more pleasant work environment. In other organizations, if group cohesiveness

or intrinsic satisfaction meets employees’ social needs, the leader is free to concen-

trate on task-oriented behaviors. The leader can adopt a style complementary to the

organizational situation to ensure that both task needs and people needs of the work

group will be met.

As a new manager, avoid leadership overkill. Don’t use a task-oriented style if the

job already pro

vides clear structure and direction. Concentrate instead on people and

relationships. Remember that professional employees typically need less leadership.

CHARISMATIC AND

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Research has also looked at how leadership can inspire and

motivate people beyond their normal levels of performance.

Some leadership approaches are more effective than others

for bringing about high levels of commitment and enthusi-

asm. Two types with a substantial impact are charismatic

and transformational.

Charismatic and Visionary Leadership

Charisma has been referred to as “a  re that ignites follow-

ers’ energy and commitment, producing results above and

beyond the call of duty.”

The charismatic leader has the

ability to inspire and motivate people to do more than they

would normally do, despite obstacles and personal sacri ce.

Followers are willing to put aside their own interests for the

sake of the team, department, or organization. The impact

of charismatic leaders is normally from: (1) stating a lofty

vision of an imagined future that employees identify with;

(2) displaying an ability to understand and empathize with

followers; and (3) empowering and trusting subordinates

to accomplish results.

Charismatic leaders tend to be less

predictable because they create an atmosphere of change, and they may be obsessed

by visionary ideas that excite, stimulate, and drive other people to work hard.

TakeaMoment

Leon Gorman stepped up to save

the family business when his grandfather L.L. Bean died in 1967.

Demonstrating visionary leadership, Gorman preserved the

identity of the Maine-based outdoorsman clothing and supplies

business while turning it into a successful multichannel billion-

dollar enterprise. He improved employee morale and customer

service by introducing stakeholder values that link success to

customers, employees, stockholders, communities, and the

environment. Employees are encouraged to provide feedback on

products after testing them on tax-deductible ﬁ eld trips. The U.S.

Department of Labor recognized L.L. Bean in its Trendsetter Report

for avoiding overseas manufacturers that use “sweatshop” labor.

cha

rismatic

ead

as t

ity to motivat

inates to transcen

exp

ected

formance.

CHAPTER 14 LEADERSHIP 423

Leading

Charismatic leaders include Mother Theresa, Sam Walton, Alexander the Great,

Steve Jobs, David Koresh, Oprah Winfrey, Martin Luther King Jr., and Osama bin

Laden. Charisma can be used for positive outcomes that bene t the group, but

it can also be used for self-serving purposes that lead to deception, manipula-

tion, and exploitation of others. When charismatic leaders respond to organiza-

tional problems in terms of the needs of the entire group rather than their own

emotional needs, they can have a powerful, positive in uence on organizational

performance.

Charismatic leaders are skilled in the art of visionary leadership. A vision is an

attractive, ideal future that is credible yet not readily attainable. Vision is an impor-

tant component of both charismatic and transformational leadership. Visionary lead-

ers speak to the hearts of employees, letting them be part of something bigger than

themselves. Where others see obstacles or failures, they see possibility and hope.

Charismatic leaders typically have a strong vision for the future, almost an obses-

sion, and they can motivate others to help realize it.

These leaders have an emo-

tional impact on subordinates because they strongly believe in the vision and can

communicate it to others in a way that makes the vision real, personal, and meaning-

ful. This chapter’s Manager’s Shoptalk provides a short quiz to help you determine

whether you have the potential to be a charismatic leader.

vis

att

rac

ide

ure

cre

dib

yet

dil

ttainable

Text not available due to copyright restrictions

PART 5 LEADING424

Transformational Versus Transactional Leadership

Transformational leaders are similar to charismatic leaders, but they are distin-

guished by their special ability to bring about innovation and change by recognizing

followers’ needs and concerns, helping them look at old problems in new ways, and

encouraging them to question the status quo. Transformational leaders inspire fol-

lowers not just to believe in the leader personally, but to believe in their own potential

to imagine and create a better future for the organization. Transformational leaders

create signi cant change in both followers and the organization.

Transformational leadership can be better understood in comparison to trans-

actional leadership.

Transactional leaders clarify the role and task requirements of

subordinates, initiate structure, provide appropriate rewards, and try to be consid-

erate to and meet the social needs of subordinates. The transactional leader’s abil-

ity to satisfy subordinates may improve productivity. Transactional leaders excel at

management functions. They are hardworking, tolerant, and fair minded. They take

pride in keeping things running smoothly and ef ciently. Transactional leaders often

stress the impersonal aspects of performance, such as plans, schedules, and budgets.

They have a sense of commitment to the organization and conform to organizational

norms and values. Transactional leadership is important to all organizations, but

leading change requires a different approach.

Transformational leaders have the ability to lead changes in the organization’s mis-

sion, strategy, structure, and culture, as well as to promote innovation in products and

technologies. Transformational leaders do not rely solely on tangible rules and incen-

tives to control speci c transactions with followers. They focus on intangible qualities

such as vision, shared values, and ideas to build relationships, give larger meaning to

diverse activities, and  nd common ground to enlist followers in the change process.

A recent study con rmed that transformational leadership has a positive impact

on follower development and follower performance. Moreover, transformational

leadership skills can be learned and are not ingrained personality characteristics.

However, some personality traits may make it easier for a leader to display transfor-

mational leadership behaviors. For example, studies of transformational leadership

have found that the trait of agreeableness, as discussed in the previous chapter, is pos-

itively associated with transformational leaders.

In addition, transformational lead-

ers are typically emotionally stable and positively engaged with the world around

them, and they have a strong ability to recognize and understand others’ emotions.

These characteristics are not surprising considering that these leaders accomplish

change by building networks of positive relationships.

FOLLOWERSHIP

No discussion of leadership is complete without a consideration of followership.

Leadership matters, but without effective followers no organization can survive.

Leaders can develop an understanding of their followers and how to help them be

most effective.

Many of the qualities that de ne a good leader are the same qualities

as those possessed by a good follower. Understanding differences in followers can

improve one’s effectiveness as both a follower and a leader. One model of follower-

ship is illustrated in Exhibit 14.8. Robert E. Kelley conducted extensive interviews

with managers and their subordinates and came up with  ve follower styles, which are

categorized according to two dimensions, as shown in the exhibit.

The  rst dimension is the quality of independent, critical thinking versus depen-

dent, uncritical thinking. Independent critical thinkers are mindful of the effects of

their own and others’ behavior on achieving organizational goals. They can weigh

the impact of their boss’s and their own decisions and offer constructive criticism,

creativity, and innovation. Conversely, a dependent, uncritical thinker does not con-

sider possibilities beyond what he or she is told, does not contribute to the cultivation

of the organization, and accepts the supervisor’s ideas without thinking.

tra

ormationa

istin

cia

rin

out

ova

tio

cha

nge

ransactiona

er w

o c

ari

ﬁ

es su

ates’ ro

e an

tas

require-

ents, initiates structure,

rovides rewards, and displays

era

n for

sub

tes

ritica

g in

epen

ent

y an

eing

e e

ect o

one’s

ehavior on achieving goals.

ncritica

consi

er t

e possi

ities

eyon

at one is to

; ac

pting ot

ers’ i

eas wit

out

inking.

CHAPTER 14 LEADERSHIP 425

Leading

The second dimension of follower style is active versus passive behavior. An

active follower participates fully in the organization, engages in behavior that is

beyond the limits of the job, demonstrates a sense of ownership, and initiates prob-

lem solving and decision making. A passive follower, by contrast, is characterized

by a need for constant supervision and prodding by superiors. Passivity is often

regarded as laziness; a passive person does nothing that is not required and avoids

added responsibility.

The extent to which an individual is active or passive and is a critical, indepen-

dent thinker or a dependent, uncritical thinker determines whether the person will

be an alienated follower, a passive follower, a conformist, a pragmatic survivor, or an

effective follower, as illustrated in Exhibit 14.8:

1. The alienated follower is a passive, yet independent, critical thinker. Alienated

employees are often effective followers who have experienced setbacks and

obstacles, perhaps promises broken by their superiors. Thus, they are capable,

but they focus exclusively on the shortcomings of their boss. Often cynical,

alienated followers are able to think independently, but they do not participate

in developing solutions to the problems or de ciencies they see. These people

waste valuable time complaining about their boss without offering constructive

feedback.

2. The conformist participates actively in a relationship with the boss but doesn’t

use critical thinking skills. In other words, a conformist typically carries out

any and all orders regardless of the nature of the request. The conformist par-

ticipates willingly, but without considering the consequences of what he or she

is being asked to do—even at the risk of contributing to a harmful endeavor. A

conformist is concerned only with avoiding con ict. This follower style might

re ect an individual’s overdependent attitude toward authority, yet it can also

result from rigid rules and authoritarian environments that create a culture of

conformity.

3. The

pragmatic survivor has qualities of all four extremes—depending on which

style  ts with the prevalent situation. This type of person uses whatever style

best bene ts his or her own position and minimizes risk. Pragmatic survivors

often emerge when an organization is going through desperate times, and man-

agers  nd themselves doing whatever is needed to get themselves through the

dif culty. Within any given company, some 25 to 35 percent of people tend to be

pragmatic survivors, avoiding risks and fostering the status quo.

ali

enate

ower

pers

o is an in

epen

ent, critica

ut is passive in t

rganization

ormist

oll

owe

ticipates active

in t

ani

zat

ion

oes

tica

ragmatic survivor

wer who has qualities of all

ower st

es,

epen

n w

ﬁ

ts t

e preva

ent

tuation

Text not available due to copyright restrictions

PART 5 LEADING426

4. The passive follower exhibits neither critical, independent thinking nor active

participation. Being passive and uncritical, these people show neither initiative

nor a sense of responsibility. Their activity is limited to what they are told to do,

and they accomplish things only with a great deal of supervision. Passive follow-

ers leave the thinking to the boss. Often, this style is the result of a micromanaging

boss who encourages passive behavior. People learn that to show initiative, accept

responsibility, or think creatively is not rewarded, and may even be punished by

the boss, so they grow increasingly passive.

5. The effective follower is both a critical, independent thinker and active in the

organization. Effective followers behave the same toward everyone, regardless

of their position in the organization. They develop an equitable relationship with

their leaders and do not try to avoid risk or con ict. These people are capable of

self-management, they discern strengths and weaknesses in themselves and their

bosses, they are committed to something bigger than themselves, and they work

toward competency, solutions, and positive impact. Effective followers recognize

that they have power in their relationships with superiors; thus, they have the

courage to manage upward, to initiate change, and to put themselves at risk or

in con ict with the boss if they believe it serves the best interest of the team or

organization.

POWER AND INFLUENCE

Both followers and leaders use power and in uence to get things done in

organizations.

Power is the potential ability to in uence the behavior of others.

Sometimes the

terms power and in uence are used synonymously, but there are distinctions between

the two. Basically, in uence is the effect a person’s actions have on the attitudes, val-

ues, beliefs, or behavior of others. Whereas power is the capacity to cause a change in

a person, in uence may be thought of as the degree of actual change.

Power results from an interaction of leader and followers. Some power comes

from an individual’s position in the organization. Power may also come from per-

sonal sources, such as an individual’s personal interests, goals, and values, as well as

from sources such as access to information or important relationships. Followers as

well as leaders can tap into a variety of power sources.

Position Power

The traditional manager’s power comes from the organization. The manager’s posi-

tion gives him or her the power to reward or punish subordinates to in uence their

behavior. Legitimate power, reward power, and coercive power are all forms of posi-

tion power used by managers to change employee behavior.

Legitimate Power Power coming from a formal management position in an orga-

nization and the authority granted to it is called legitimate power. Once a person has

been selected as a supervisor, most employees understand that they are obligated to

follow his or her direction with respect to work activities. Subordinates accept this

source of power as legitimate, which is why they comply.

Reward Power Another kind of power, reward power, stems from the authority

to bestow rewards on other people. Managers may have access to formal rewards,

such as pay increases or promotions. They also have at their disposal such rewards

as praise, attention, and recognition. Managers can use rewards to in uence subor-

dinates’ behavior.

pas

sive follower

erson

xhi

l in

endent thinkin

nor active

tic

ipa

tio

ect

r A critical,

endent thinker who

tivel

participates in the

zat

on.

ower

e potentia

ity t

ﬂ uence others’ behavior

ﬂ

uence

The

effect

erson’s actions

ave on t

titu

ues

avior o

ers

egitimate power P

ems

rom a

orma

mana

ent position in an organiza

on an

e aut

ority grante

it.

ewar

power P

rom t

e aut

orit

estow rewar

s on ot

eop

CHAPTER 14 LEADERSHIP 427

Leading

Coercive Power The opposite of reward power is coercive power. It refers to the

authority to punish or recommend punishment. Managers have coercive power when

they have the right to  re or demote employees, criticize, or withdraw pay increases.

If an employee does not perform as expected, the manager has the coercive power to

reprimand him, put a negative letter in his  le, deny him a raise, and hurt his chances

for a promotion.

Personal Power

In contrast to the external sources of position power, personal power most often

comes from internal sources, such as an individual’s special knowledge or personal

characteristics. Personal power is the primary tool of the leader, and it is becom-

ing increasingly important as more businesses are run by teams of workers who are

less tolerant of authoritarian management.

Two types of personal power are expert

power and referent power.

Expert Power Power resulting from a person’s special

knowledge or skill regarding the tasks being performed is

referred to as expert power. When someone is a true expert,

others go along with recommendations because of his or her

superior knowledge. Followers as well as leaders can pos-

sess expert power. For example, some managers lead teams

in which members have expertise that the leader lacks. Some

leaders at top management levels may lack expert power

because subordinates know more about technical details

than they do.

Referent Power Referent power comes from an individ-

ual’s personal characteristics that command others’ iden-

ti cation, respect, and admiration so they wish to emulate

that individual. Referent power does not depend on a for-

mal title or position. When employees admire a supervisor

because of the way she deals with them, the in uence is

based on referent power. Referent power is most visible in

the area of charismatic leadership. In social and religious

movements, we often see charismatic leaders who emerge

and gain a tremendous following based solely on their per-

sonal power.

Other Sources of Power

There are additional sources of power that are not linked to a particular person or

position but rather to the role an individual plays in the overall functioning of the

organization. These important sources include personal effort, relationships with

others, and information.

Personal Effort People who show initiative, work beyond what is expected

of them, take on undesirable but important projects, and show interest in learn-

ing about the organization and industry often gain power as a result. Managers

come to depend on particular subordinates, for instance, whom they know they

can count on to take on a disagreeable job or put forth extra effort when it’s nec-

essary. However, these people aren’t pushovers. Related to personal effort is the

individual’s willingness to be assertive in asking for what she wants and needs

from superiors.

UPS employees joke that when

Mike Eskew became CEO, he’d only worked for the company for

30 years. This bit of ofﬁ ce humor reﬂ ects UPS’s long-standing

promote-from-within approach to management development.

UPS managers gain expert power by working their way up

from the bottom. For example, when Eskew arrived as a young

industrial engineer, his ﬁ rst assignment was to redraw a parking

lot so it could accommodate more trucks. Today, he’s using

his thorough understanding of the business to help move the

$43 billion company from package delivery into global supply

chain management. Eskew retired in 2008, having completed the

ﬁ ve-year tenure that’s become customary for UPS CEOs.

coe

rcive

ower

ms from the authorit

to pun

or recommen

punis

ment

ower

ower that

fro

pec

ial

owl

edg

or skill in the tasks per-

med

bor

din

ate

eferent

ower

Pow

tha

ult

rom

ara

cte

ris

tic

ate

’

entiﬁ cation with, respect an

miration for

and desire to

lat

lea

PART 5 LEADING428

Network of Relationships People who are enmeshed in a network of relation-

ships have greater power. A leader or employee with many relationships knows

what’s going on in the organization and industry, whereas one who has few interper-

sonal connections is often in the dark about important activities or changes. Develop-

ing positive associations with superiors or other powerful people is a good way to

gain power, but people with the greatest power are those who cultivate relationships

with individuals at all levels, both inside and outside the organization.

Information Information is a primary business resource, and people who have

access to information and control over how and to whom it is distributed are typi-

cally powerful. To some extent, access to information is determined by a person’s

position in the organization. Top managers typically have access to more information

than middle managers, who in turn have access to more information than lower-level

supervisors or front-line employees.

As a new manager, you may not have a lot of position power. Build your power by

strengthening your knowledge and skills, putting forth personal effort, and developing

positive relationships. Interpersonal inﬂ uence tactics will serve you well throughout

your career, even as your position power increases.

Interpersonal Inﬂ uence Tactics

The next question is how leaders use their power to implement decisions and facili-

tate change. Leaders often use a combination of in uence strategies, and people who

are perceived as having greater power and in uence typically are those who use a

wider variety of tactics. One survey of a few hundred leaders identi ed more than

4,000 different techniques these people used to in uence others.

However, these tactics fall into basic categories that rely on understanding the

principles that cause people to change their behavior and attitudes. Exhibit 14.9 lists

seven principles for asserting in uence. Notice that most of these involve the use of

personal power rather than relying solely on position power or the use of rewards

and punishments.

1. Use rational persuasion. The most frequently used in uence strategy is to use

facts, data, and logical argument to persuade others that a proposed idea, request,

or decision is appropriate. Using rational persuasion can often be highly effec-

tive, because most people have faith in facts and analysis.

Rational persuasion

is most successful when a leader has technical knowledge and expertise related

to the issue at hand (expert power), although referent power is also used. That

is, in addition to facts and  gures, people also have to believe in the leader’s

credibility.

2. Make people like you. Recall our discussion of likability from the previous chap-

ter. People would rather say yes to someone they like than to someone they

don’t. Effective leaders strive to create goodwill and favorable impressions.

TakeaMoment

EXHIBIT 14.9

Seven Interpersonal Inﬂ uence

Tactics for Leaders

1. Use rational persuasion.

2. Make people like you.

3. Rely on the rule of reciprocity.

4. Develop allies.

5. Be assertive—ask for what you want.

6. Make use of higher authority.

7. Reward the behaviors you want.

CHAPTER 14 LEADERSHIP 429

Leading

When a leader shows consideration and respect, treats people fairly, and dem-

onstrates trust in others, people are more likely to want to help and support the

leader by doing what he or she asks. In addition, most people like a leader who

makes them feel good about themselves, so leaders should never underestimate

the power of praise.

3. Rely on the rule of reciprocity. Leaders can in uence others through the exchange

of bene ts and favors. Leaders share what they have—whether it is time, resources,

services, or emotional support. The feeling among people is nearly universal that

others should be paid back for what they do, in one form or another. This unwrit-

ten “rule of reciprocity” means that leaders who do favors for others can expect

that others will do favors for them in return.

4. Develop allies. Effective leaders develop networks of allies, people who can help

the leader accomplish his or her goals. Leaders talk with followers and others

outside of formal meetings to understand their needs and concerns as well as to

explain problems and describe the leader’s point of view. They strive to reach a

meeting of minds with others about the best approach to a problem or decision.

5. Ask for what you want. Another way to in uence others is to make a direct and

personal request. Leaders have to be explicit about what they want, or they aren’t

likely to get it. An explicit proposal is sometimes accepted simply because others

have no better alternative. Also, a clear proposal or alternative will often receive

support if other options are less well-de ned.

6. Make use of higher authority. Sometimes to get things done leaders have to use

their formal authority, as well as gain the support of people at higher levels to

back them up. However, research has found that the key to successful use of for-

mal authority is to be knowledgeable, credible, and trustworthy—that is, to dem-

onstrate expert and referent power as well as legitimate power. Managers who

become known for their expertise, who are honest and straightforward with oth-

ers, and who inspire trust can exert greater in uence than those who simply issue

orders.

7. Reward the behaviors you want. Leaders can also use organizational rewards and

punishments to in uence others’ behavior. The use of punishment in organiza-

tions is controversial, but negative consequences almost always occur for inap-

propriate or undesirable behavior. Leaders should not rely solely on reward and

punishment as a means for in uencing others, but combined with other tactics

that involve the use of personal power, rewards can be highly effective.

Research indicates that people rate leaders as “more effective” when they are per-

ceived to use a variety of in uence tactics. But not all managers use in uence in the

same way. Studies have found that leaders in human resources, for example, tend

to use softer, more subtle approaches such as building goodwill, using favors, and

developing allies, whereas those in  nance are inclined to use harder, more direct

tactics such as formal authority and assertiveness.

LEADERSHIP AS SERVICE

To close this chapter, let’s look at two timeless leadership approaches that are gain-

ing renewed attention in today’s environment of ethical scandals and weakened

employee trust. Characteristics of servant leadership and moral leadership can be

successfully used by leaders in all situations to make a positive difference.

Servant Leadership

Some leaders operate from the assumption that work exists for the development of

the worker as much as the worker exists to do the work.

The concept of servant