Poto?nik P. (Ed.) Natural Gas
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
Adsorption of methane in porous materials as the basis for the storage of natural gas 241
Cracknell, R.F.; Gordon, P. & Gubbins, K.E. (1993). Influence of pore geometry on the design
of microporous materials for methane storage, Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 97,
pp. 494-499. ISSN 0022-3654.
Davies, G.M. & Seaton, N.A. (1998). The effect of the choice of pore model on the
characterization of the internal structure of microporous carbons using pore size
distributions, Carbon, Vol. 36, pp. 1473-1490. ISSN 0008-6223.
Davies, G.M. & Seaton, N.A. (1999). Development and validation of pore structure models
for adsorption in activated carbons, Langmuir, Vol. 15, pp. 6263-6276. ISSN 0743-
7463.
Davies, G.M.; Seaton, N.A. & Vassiliadis, V.S. (1999). Calculation of pore size distributions
of activated carbons from adsorption isotherms, Langmuir, Vol. 15, pp. 8235-8245.
ISSN 0743-7463.
Dirección de Tecnología, Seguridad y Eficiencia Energética (2006). El gas natural vehicular: un
combustible con mucho futuro. http://www.gasnaturalcomercializadora.com
Do, D.D. & Do, H.D. 2003. Adsorption of supercritical fluids in non-porous and porous
carbons: analysis of adsorbed phase volume and density. Carbon, Vol. 41, No. 9, pp.
1777-1791. ISSN 0008-6223.
Dubinin, D.D. (1960). The Potential Theory of Adsorption of Gases and Vapors for
Adsorbents with Energetically Nonuniform Surfaces. Chemical Reviews, Vol. 60, No.
2, pp. 235-241. ISSN (electronic) 1520-6890.
Frenkel, D. & Smit, B. (2002). Understanding molecular simulation: From algorithms to
applications, Publisher Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-267351, London.
Furukawa, H. & Yaghi, O.M. (2009). Storage of hydrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide in
highly porous covalent organic frameworks for clean energy applications, Journal
the American Chemical Society, Vol. 131, pp. 8875-8883. ISSN 00027863.
García Blanco, A.A.; Alexandre de Oliveira, J.C.; López, R.; Moreno-Piraján, J.C.; Giraldo, L.;
Zgrablich, G. & Sapag, K. (2010) A study of the pore size distribution for activated
carbon monoliths and their relationship with the storage of methane and hydrogen.
Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, Vol. 357, No. 1-3, pp.
74-83. ISSN 0927-7757.
Garrido, J.; Linares-Solano, A.; Martín-Martínez, J. M.; Molina-Sabio, M.; Rodriguez-
Reinoso, F. &. Torregrosa, R. (1987). Use of N2 vs. C02 in the Characterization of
Activated Carbons, Langmuir 1987, Vol. 3, pp. 76-81. ISSN 0743-7463.
Gregg, S.J. & Sing, K.S.W. (1982) Adsorption, Surface Area and Porosity. Published Academic
Press, ISBN 0123009561, London.
Gubbins, K.E. (1997). Theory and simulation of adsorption in micropores, In: Physical
Adsorption: Experiment, theory and applications, Fraissard J. & Conner W.C.,
(Ed.), pp. 65-103, Kluwer, ISBN 0-7923-4547-9, Dordrecht.
Hill, T.L. (1986). An Introduction to Statistical Mechanics, Dover Publications Inc, ISBN 0-486-
65242-4, Mineola N.Y.
Inomata, K.; Kanazawa, K.; Urabe, Y.; Hosono, H. & Araki, T. (2002). Natural gas storage in
activated carbon pellets without a binder, Carbon, Vol. 40, pp. 87-93. ISSN 0008-
6223.
Jagiello, J. & Thommes, M. (2004). Comparison of DFT characterization methods based on
N2, Ar, CO2 and H2 adsorption applied to carbons with various pore size
distributions. Carbon, Vol. 42, No. 7, pp. 1227-1232. ISSN 0008-6223.
Jagiello, J.; Ania, C.O.; Parra, J.B.; Jagiello, L.; Pis, J.J. (2007). Using DFT analysis of
adsorption data on multiple gases including H2 for the comprehesive
characterization of microporous carbons. Carbon, Vol. 45, No. 5, pp. 1066-1071 ISSN
0008-6223.
Konstantakou, M.; Steriotis, Th.A.; Papadopoulos, G.K.; Kainourgiakis, M.; Kikkinides, E.S.;
& Stubos A.K. (2007). Characterization of nanoporous carbons by combining CO
2
and H2 sorption data with the Monte Carlo simulations. Applied Surface Science,
Vol. 253, No. 13, pp. 5715-5720. ISSN 0169-4332.
Kuznetsova, A.; Yates, J.T.; Liu, J. & Smalley, R.E. (2000). Physical adsorption of xenon in
open single walled carbon nanotubes: Observation of a quasi-one-dimensional
confined Xe phase, Journal of Chemical Physics, Vol. 112, No. 21, pp. 9590-9598. ISSN
(electronic): 1089-7690.
Lastoskie, C.M.; Gubbins, K.E. & Quirke N. (1993). Pore size distribution analysis of
microporous carbons : A Density functional approach, Journal of Physical Chemistry,
Vol. 97, No. 18, pp. 4786-4796. ISSN 0022-3654.
Li, H.; Eddaoudi, M.; O’Keeffe, M. & Yaghi, O.M. (1999) Design and synthesis of an
exceptionally stable and highly porous metal-organic framework, Nature, Vol. 402,
pp. 276-279. ISSN (electronic) 1476-4687.
Llewellyn, P.L.; Bourrelly, S.; Serre, C.; Vimont, A.; Daturi, M.; Hamon, L.; De Weireld. G.;
Chang, J.S.; Hong, D.Y.; Hwang, Y.K.; Jhung, S.H. & Férey, G. (2008). High uptakes
of CO2 and CH4 in mesoporous metal-organic frameworks MIL-100 and MIL-101,
Langmuir Vol. 24, pp. 7245-7250. ISSN 0743-7463.
Lozano-Castelló, D.; Alcañiz-Monge, J.; De La Casa-Lillo, M.A.: Cazorla-Amorós, D. &
Linares-Solano, A. (2002a). Advances in the study of methane storage in porous
carbonaceous materials, Fuel, Vol. 81, pp. 1777-1803. ISSN 0016-2361.
Lozano-Castello, D.; Cazorla-Amorós, A.; Linares-Solano, A. & Quinn, D.F. (2002b).
Activated carbon monoliths for methane storage: influence of binder, Carbon Vol.
40, pp. 2817-2825. ISSN 0008-6223.
Lozano-Castelló, D.; Cazorla-Amorós, D.; Linares-Solano, A. & Quinn, D.F. (2002c).
Influence of pore size distribution on methane storage at relatively low pressure:
preparation of activated carbon with optimum pore size, Carbon, Vol. 40, pp. 989-
1002. ISSN 0008-6223.
Lucena, S.M.P.; Paiva, C.A.S.; Silvino, P.F.G.; Azevedo, D.C.S. & Cavalcante Jr., C.L. (2010)
The effect of heterogeneity in the randomly etched graphite model for carbon pore
size characterization, Carbon, Vol. 48, pp. 2554-2565. ISSN 0008-6223.
MacDonald, J.A.F. & Quinn, D.F. (1998). Carbon adsorbents for natural gas storage, Fuel,
Vol. 77, No. 112, pp. 61-64. ISSN 0016-2361.
Marsh, H. & Rodriguez-Reinoso, F. (2006). Activated Carbon. Publisher: Elsevier Science &
Technology Books, ISBN 0080444636, Great Britain.
Martín Martínez, J.M. (1990). Adsorción física de gases y vapores por carbones, Secretariado de
Publicaciones de la Universidad de Alicante (Ed.), Published: Imprenta de la
Universidad, ISBN 84-86809-33-9. Universidad de Alicante.
Matranga, K.R.; Myers, A.L. & Glandt, E.D. (1992). Storage of natural gas by adsorption on
activated carbon, Chemical Engineering Science, Vol. 47, pp. 1569-1579. ISSN 0009-
2509.
Natural Gas242
Menon, P.G. (1968). Adsorption at high pressures, Chemical Reviews, Vol. 68, No. 3, pp. 253-
373. ISSN (electronic) 1520-6890
Menon, V.C. & Komarnei, S. (1998). Porous adsorbents for vehicular natural gas storage: a
review, Journal of Porous Materials, Vol. 5, pp. 43-58. ISSN 1380-2224.
Mentasty, L.; Faccio, R.J. & Zgrablich, G. (1991). High Pressure Methane Adsorption in 5A
Zeolite and the Nature of Gas-Solid Interactions, Adsorption Science & Technology,
Vol. 8, pp. 105. ISSN 0263-6174.
Murata, K.; El-Merraoui, M. & Kaneko, K. 2001. A new determination method of absolute
adsorption isotherm of supercritical gases under high pressure with a special
relevance to density-functional theory study. Journal of Chemical Physics, Vol. 114,
No. 9, pp. 4196-4205. ISSN (electronic): 1089-7690.
Natural Gas and Climate Change Policy. The European Gas Industry`s View. (1998)
EUROGAS, Bélgica. http://www.eurogas.org/publications_environment.aspx
Neimark A.V. & Ravikovitch P.I. (1997). Calibration of pore volume in adsorption
experiments and theoretical models, Langmuir, Vol. 13, No. 19, pp. 5148-5160. ISSN
0743-7463.
Neimark A.V.; Ravikovitch P.I. & Vishnyakov A. (2000). Adsorption hysteresis in
nanopores, Physical Review E, Vol 62, No. 2, pp. 1493-1496. ISSN 1550-2376 (online).
Nicholson, D. & Parsonage, N.G. (1982). Computer simulation and the statistical mechanics of
adsorption, Academic Press, ISBN 0125180608, London.
Parkyns, N.D. & Quinn, D.F. (1995). Natural Gas Adsorbed on Carbon, Porosity in Carbons, J.
W. Patrick (Ed.), pp. 292-325, ISBN 470-23-454-7, London.
Prauchner, M.J. & Rodríguez-Reinoso, F. (2008). Preparation of granular activated carbons
for adsorption of natural gas, Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, Vol. 109, pp.
581-584. ISSN: 1387-1811.
Quirke, N. & Tennison, S.R.R. (1996). The interpretation of pore size distributions of
microporous carbons. Carbon, Vol. 34, No. 10, pp. 1281-1286. ISSN 0008-6223.
Ravikovitch, P. I.; Vishnyakov, A.; Russo, R. & Neimark A.V. (2000). Unified Approach to
Pore Size Characterization of Microporous Carbonaceous Materials from N2, Ar,
and CO2 Adsorption Isotherms. Langmuir, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 2311-2320. ISSN 0743-
7463.
Rodriguez-Reinoso, F. & Molina-Sabio, M. (1992). Activated carbons from lignocellulosic
materials by chemical and/or physical activation: an overview, Carbon Vol. 30, No.
7, pp. 1111-1118. ISSN 0008-6223.
Rouquerol, F.; Rouquerol, J. & Sing, K. (1999). Adsorption by powders and porous solids.
Principles, methodology and application, Published Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-598920-
2, London.
Rouquerol, J.; Avnir, D.; Fairbridge, C.W.; Everett, D.H.; Haynes, J.H.; Pernicone, N.;
Ramsay, J.D.F.; Sing, K.S.W. & Unger , K.K. (1994). Recommendations For The
Characterization Of Porous Solids. Pure & Applied Chemistry, Vol. 66, No. 8, pp.
1739-1758. ISSN electronic 1365-3075.
Samios, S.; Stubos, A.K.; Kanellopoulos, N.K.; Cracknell, R.F.; Papadopoulos, G.K. &
Nicholson, D. (1997). Determination of micropore size distribution from Gran
Canonical Monte Carlo simulations and experimental CO
2
isotherm data. Langmuir,
Vol. 13, No. 10, pp. 2795-2802. ISSN 0743-7463.
Sapag, K. & Mendioroz, S. (2001). Synthesis and characterization of micro-mesoporous
solids: pillared clays, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects,
Vol. 187-188, No. 31, pp. 141-149. ISSN 0927-7757.
Scaife, S.; Klusen, P. & Quirke, N. (2000). Characterization of porous materials by gas
adsorption: Do different molecular probes give different pore structures?. Journal of
Physical Chemistry B, Vol. 104, No. 2, pp. 313-318. ISSN (electronic): 1520-5207.
Scaife, S.; Kluson, P. & Quirke, N. (2000), Characterization of porous materials by gas
adsorption: Do different molecular probes give different pore structures, Journal
Physical Chemistry B, Vol. 104, pp. 313-318. ISSN (electronic): 1520-5207.
Sing, K.S.W.; Everett, D.H.; Haul, R.A.W.; Moscou, L.; Pierotti, R.A.; Rouquerol, J. &
Siemieniewska, T. (1985). Reporting Physisorption Data For Gas/Solid Systems
With Special Reference to the Determination of Surface Area and Porosity, Pure &
Applied Chemistry, Vol. 57, No. 4, pp. 603-619. ISSN electronic 1365-3075.
Sircar, S.; Golden, T.C. & Rao, M.B. (1996). Activated carbon for gas separation and storage,
Carbon, Vol. 34, No. 1, p. l-12. ISSN 0008-6223.
Solar, C.; Sardella, F.; Deiana, C.; Montero Lago, R.; Vallone, A. & Sapag, K. (2008). Natural
Gas Storage in Microporous Carbon Obtained from Waste of the Olive Oil
Production, Materials Research, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 409-414. ISSN 1516-1439.
Somorjai, G.A. (1994) Introduction to Surface Chemistry and Catalysis. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
(Ed.). ISBN: 978-0-471-03192-5, EEUU.
Steele, W.A. 1974. The interaction of gases with solid surfaces, First Edition, Pergamon,
ISBN 0080177247, Oxford.
Sun, J.; Brady, T.A.; Rood, M.J.; Lehmann, C.M.; Rostam-Abadi, M. & Lizzio, A.A. (1997).
Adsorbed natural gas storage with activated carbons made from Illinois coals and
scrap tires, Energy & Fuels, Vol. 11, pp. 316-322. ISSN (electronic): 1520-5029.
Sweatman, M.B. & Quirke, N. (2001a). Characterization of porous materials by gas
adsorption at ambient temperatures and high pressure, Journal of Physical Chemistry
B, Vol. 105, pp. 1403-1411. ISSN (electronic): 1520-5207.
Sweatman, M.B. & Quirke, N. (2001b). Characterization of porous materials by gas
adsorption: Comparison of nitrogen at 77K and Carbon Dioxide at 298K for
activated carbon. Langmuir, Vol. 17, No. 16, pp. 5011-5020. ISSN 0743-7463.
Sweatman, M.B. & Quirke, N. (2006). Modelling gas adsorption in slit-pores using Monte
Carlo simulation, In: Adsorption and transport at the nanoscale, N. Quirke (Ed.) pp. 15-
41. CRC Taylor & Francis, ISBN 041532701-6, Boca Raton FL.
Tan, Z. & Gubbins, K.E. (1990). Adsorption in carbon micropores at supercritical
temperatures, Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 94, pp. 6061-6069. ISSN 0022-3654.
Tarazona P. (1985). Free-energy density functional for hard spheres, Physical Review A, Vol.
31, No. 4, pp. 2672-2679. ISSN 1050-2947.
Triebe, R.W.; Tezel, F.H. & Khulbe, K.C. (1996). Adsorption of methane, ethane and ethylene
on molecular sieve zeolites, Gas Separation & Purification, Vol. 10, Issue 1, pp. 81-84.
ISSN 0950-4214.
Wang, B.; Cote, A.P.; Furukawa, H.; O´Keeffe, M. & Yaghi, O.M. (2008). Colosal cages in
zeolitic imidazolate frameworks as selective carbon dioxide reservoirs, Nature ,Vol.
453, pp. 207-212. ISSN (electronic) 1476-4687.
World Energy Outlook, 2009. Ed: International Energy Agency (IEA), France ISBN: 978-92-
64-06130-9. www.iea.org/about/copyright.asp
Adsorption of methane in porous materials as the basis for the storage of natural gas 243
Menon, P.G. (1968). Adsorption at high pressures, Chemical Reviews, Vol. 68, No. 3, pp. 253-
373. ISSN (electronic) 1520-6890
Menon, V.C. & Komarnei, S. (1998). Porous adsorbents for vehicular natural gas storage: a
review, Journal of Porous Materials, Vol. 5, pp. 43-58. ISSN 1380-2224.
Mentasty, L.; Faccio, R.J. & Zgrablich, G. (1991). High Pressure Methane Adsorption in 5A
Zeolite and the Nature of Gas-Solid Interactions, Adsorption Science & Technology,
Vol. 8, pp. 105. ISSN 0263-6174.
Murata, K.; El-Merraoui, M. & Kaneko, K. 2001. A new determination method of absolute
adsorption isotherm of supercritical gases under high pressure with a special
relevance to density-functional theory study. Journal of Chemical Physics, Vol. 114,
No. 9, pp. 4196-4205. ISSN (electronic): 1089-7690.
Natural Gas and Climate Change Policy. The European Gas Industry`s View. (1998)
EUROGAS, Bélgica. http://www.eurogas.org/publications_environment.aspx
Neimark A.V. & Ravikovitch P.I. (1997). Calibration of pore volume in adsorption
experiments and theoretical models, Langmuir, Vol. 13, No. 19, pp. 5148-5160. ISSN
0743-7463.
Neimark A.V.; Ravikovitch P.I. & Vishnyakov A. (2000). Adsorption hysteresis in
nanopores, Physical Review E, Vol 62, No. 2, pp. 1493-1496. ISSN 1550-2376 (online).
Nicholson, D. & Parsonage, N.G. (1982). Computer simulation and the statistical mechanics of
adsorption, Academic Press, ISBN 0125180608, London.
Parkyns, N.D. & Quinn, D.F. (1995). Natural Gas Adsorbed on Carbon, Porosity in Carbons, J.
W. Patrick (Ed.), pp. 292-325, ISBN 470-23-454-7, London.
Prauchner, M.J. & Rodríguez-Reinoso, F. (2008). Preparation of granular activated carbons
for adsorption of natural gas, Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, Vol. 109, pp.
581-584. ISSN: 1387-1811.
Quirke, N. & Tennison, S.R.R. (1996). The interpretation of pore size distributions of
microporous carbons. Carbon, Vol. 34, No. 10, pp. 1281-1286. ISSN 0008-6223.
Ravikovitch, P. I.; Vishnyakov, A.; Russo, R. & Neimark A.V. (2000). Unified Approach to
Pore Size Characterization of Microporous Carbonaceous Materials from N2, Ar,
and CO2 Adsorption Isotherms. Langmuir, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 2311-2320. ISSN 0743-
7463.
Rodriguez-Reinoso, F. & Molina-Sabio, M. (1992). Activated carbons from lignocellulosic
materials by chemical and/or physical activation: an overview, Carbon Vol. 30, No.
7, pp. 1111-1118. ISSN 0008-6223.
Rouquerol, F.; Rouquerol, J. & Sing, K. (1999). Adsorption by powders and porous solids.
Principles, methodology and application, Published Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-598920-
2, London.
Rouquerol, J.; Avnir, D.; Fairbridge, C.W.; Everett, D.H.; Haynes, J.H.; Pernicone, N.;
Ramsay, J.D.F.; Sing, K.S.W. & Unger , K.K. (1994). Recommendations For The
Characterization Of Porous Solids. Pure & Applied Chemistry, Vol. 66, No. 8, pp.
1739-1758. ISSN electronic 1365-3075.
Samios, S.; Stubos, A.K.; Kanellopoulos, N.K.; Cracknell, R.F.; Papadopoulos, G.K. &
Nicholson, D. (1997). Determination of micropore size distribution from Gran
Canonical Monte Carlo simulations and experimental CO
2
isotherm data. Langmuir,
Vol. 13, No. 10, pp. 2795-2802. ISSN 0743-7463.
Sapag, K. & Mendioroz, S. (2001). Synthesis and characterization of micro-mesoporous
solids: pillared clays, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects,
Vol. 187-188, No. 31, pp. 141-149. ISSN 0927-7757.
Scaife, S.; Klusen, P. & Quirke, N. (2000). Characterization of porous materials by gas
adsorption: Do different molecular probes give different pore structures?. Journal of
Physical Chemistry B, Vol. 104, No. 2, pp. 313-318. ISSN (electronic): 1520-5207.
Scaife, S.; Kluson, P. & Quirke, N. (2000), Characterization of porous materials by gas
adsorption: Do different molecular probes give different pore structures, Journal
Physical Chemistry B, Vol. 104, pp. 313-318. ISSN (electronic): 1520-5207.
Sing, K.S.W.; Everett, D.H.; Haul, R.A.W.; Moscou, L.; Pierotti, R.A.; Rouquerol, J. &
Siemieniewska, T. (1985). Reporting Physisorption Data For Gas/Solid Systems
With Special Reference to the Determination of Surface Area and Porosity, Pure &
Applied Chemistry, Vol. 57, No. 4, pp. 603-619. ISSN electronic 1365-3075.
Sircar, S.; Golden, T.C. & Rao, M.B. (1996). Activated carbon for gas separation and storage,
Carbon, Vol. 34, No. 1, p. l-12. ISSN 0008-6223.
Solar, C.; Sardella, F.; Deiana, C.; Montero Lago, R.; Vallone, A. & Sapag, K. (2008). Natural
Gas Storage in Microporous Carbon Obtained from Waste of the Olive Oil
Production, Materials Research, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 409-414. ISSN 1516-1439.
Somorjai, G.A. (1994) Introduction to Surface Chemistry and Catalysis. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
(Ed.). ISBN: 978-0-471-03192-5, EEUU.
Steele, W.A. 1974. The interaction of gases with solid surfaces, First Edition, Pergamon,
ISBN 0080177247, Oxford.
Sun, J.; Brady, T.A.; Rood, M.J.; Lehmann, C.M.; Rostam-Abadi, M. & Lizzio, A.A. (1997).
Adsorbed natural gas storage with activated carbons made from Illinois coals and
scrap tires, Energy & Fuels, Vol. 11, pp. 316-322. ISSN (electronic): 1520-5029.
Sweatman, M.B. & Quirke, N. (2001a). Characterization of porous materials by gas
adsorption at ambient temperatures and high pressure, Journal of Physical Chemistry
B, Vol. 105, pp. 1403-1411. ISSN (electronic): 1520-5207.
Sweatman, M.B. & Quirke, N. (2001b). Characterization of porous materials by gas
adsorption: Comparison of nitrogen at 77K and Carbon Dioxide at 298K for
activated carbon. Langmuir, Vol. 17, No. 16, pp. 5011-5020. ISSN 0743-7463.
Sweatman, M.B. & Quirke, N. (2006). Modelling gas adsorption in slit-pores using Monte
Carlo simulation, In: Adsorption and transport at the nanoscale, N. Quirke (Ed.) pp. 15-
41. CRC Taylor & Francis, ISBN 041532701-6, Boca Raton FL.
Tan, Z. & Gubbins, K.E. (1990). Adsorption in carbon micropores at supercritical
temperatures, Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 94, pp. 6061-6069. ISSN 0022-3654.
Tarazona P. (1985). Free-energy density functional for hard spheres, Physical Review A, Vol.
31, No. 4, pp. 2672-2679. ISSN 1050-2947.
Triebe, R.W.; Tezel, F.H. & Khulbe, K.C. (1996). Adsorption of methane, ethane and ethylene
on molecular sieve zeolites, Gas Separation & Purification, Vol. 10, Issue 1, pp. 81-84.
ISSN 0950-4214.
Wang, B.; Cote, A.P.; Furukawa, H.; O´Keeffe, M. & Yaghi, O.M. (2008). Colosal cages in
zeolitic imidazolate frameworks as selective carbon dioxide reservoirs, Nature ,Vol.
453, pp. 207-212. ISSN (electronic) 1476-4687.
World Energy Outlook, 2009. Ed: International Energy Agency (IEA), France ISBN: 978-92-
64-06130-9. www.iea.org/about/copyright.asp
Natural Gas244
Yang, C., Kim, D.Y. & Lee, Y.H. (2005). Formation of densely packed single-walled carbon
nanotube assembly. Chemistry of Materials, Vol.17, pp. 6422-6429. ISSN 0897-4756.
Zhou, L.; Zhou, Y.; Bai, S.; Lü, C. & Yang, B. (2001). Determination of the Adsorbed Phase
Volume and Its Application in Isotherm Modeling for the Adsorption of
Supercritical Nitrogen on Activated Carbon. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science,
Vol. 239, No. 1, pp. 33-38. ISSN 0021-9797.
Industrial application of natural gas 245
Industrial application of natural gas
Alejandro Sáez
X
Industrial application of natural gas
Alejandro Sáez
Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María
Chile
1. Introduction to General Aspects of Natural Gas
Production and Consumption Worldwide and in Latin America
The world’s natural gas reserves are concentrated in a small number of countries representing
over 70% of total reserves. Distribution by country is shown below in figure 1.1.
Fig. 1.1 Natural Gas Reserves. Reference (2)
Natural gas reserves are concentrated in the Middle East (40%), primarily Iran (16%) and
Qatar (14%). After the Middle East, the world’s largest reserves are located in Russia (27%);
Africa (8%), above all Nigeria (3%) and Algeria (2.4%), and in the Asia-Pacific Region (8%).
11
Natural Gas246
In comparison with the regional distribution of oil reserves, natural gas reserves are more
diversely distributed.
Major natural gas producing regions include North America (27%), led by the United States
(19%); the Former Soviet Union (26%), where the world’s largest production company is
located, Russia (20% of total worldwide production in 2008); and the Asia-Pacific Region
(13%).
The largest natural gas consumers are the United States and Russia (approximately 22% and
14%, respectively, of total worldwide consumption in 2008). They are followed by Canada,
Japan, the United Kingdom, China and Germany, each representing nearly 3% of worldwide
consumption.
In terms of the international gas trade, natural gas traded between different countries in
2008 represented over 26% of worldwide production and demonstrates significant potential
for growth, particularly as regards LNG (liquefied natural gas). In 2008, 19% of the gas
traded internationally was sold through pipelines and 7% as LNG. Japan and Spain are the
two largest importers of liquefied natural gas.
As regards South America, the largest reserves are found in Venezuela, Bolivia, Columbia,
Argentina and Peru, with a total of 6500 bcm. The countries with the highest consumption
are Argentina and Brazil, with a total of 55 bcm/year.
The international natural gas trade in this region is carried out between countries which are
interconnected via gas pipelines, such as Argentina with Bolivia, Chile and Uruguay and
Bolivia with Brazil and Argentina. For geopolitical reasons and due to differing economic
policies, a more universal natural gas transportation system which would allow gas to be
traded throughout the continent has not been developed. Multiple ports with liquefied
natural gas regasification terminals have been built to meet demand, reaching different
regions of the world where it is injected into the local distribution networks of each country.
Graph 1.2 shows gas pipelines and liquefied natural gas reception ports in the Southern
Cone.
Fig. 1.2. Liquefied Natural Gas Reception Terminals in South America. Reference (3)
2. Properties of Natural Gas and their Impact on Industrial Applications
Natural gas is a fossil fuel found underground, generated by the decomposition of organic
matter trapped between rocky strata of the Earth's crust. It is extracted from subterranean
deposits of gas, oil and gas or condensate, so it may be obtained alone or together with oil.
2.1 Composition of Natural Gas
Natural gas is a fuel found in deposits in its gas phase. It is colorless and odorless, non-toxic,
lighter than air and does not contain olefins (hydrocarbons produced during the process of
destructive distillation or reforming). It is constituted primarily by methane (CH4), usually
in a percentage of over 85% of volume. The remaining percentage is composed of higher
order hydrocarbons such as paraffins or isoparaffins. It also contains water vapor at varying
degrees of saturation, or condensed water. It may also contain carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
hydrogen sulphide and helium, among others. Table 2.1 shows the typical composition of
Argentine natural gas originating from the Northeast Basin.
If the gas contains enough carbon dioxide to cause its calorific value to fall below the values
specified in sales contracts it must be subjected to a process to extract this element, in
addition to hydrogen sulphide or other sulfur compounds causing it to be highly corrosive
and inadmissible for certain industrial applications.
Once extracted, the gas is treated for the purpose of removing undesirable components such
as water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds, condensable hydrocarbons and solid
and liquid particles. This process is known as "gas drying"; therefore, dry gas is gas which
has been dehydrated and subjected to a process in which condensable hydrocarbons such as
propane, butane pentanes and higher hydrocarbons have been extracted. The amounts
which may be recovered from the abovementioned components depend on the original
composition of the natural gas and the process used to dry it. Dry gases are also known as
lean gases, and wet gases are also known as rich gases.
Component Identification Unit Value
Methane C
1
mol% 91.15
Ethane C
2
mol% 5.56
Propane C
3
mol% 0.16
Carbon Dioxide CO
2
mol% 2.39
Nitrogen N
2
mol% 0.72
Other mol% 0.02
Water H
2
O mg/Sm
3
14.59
Sulfuric Acid H
2
SO
4
mg/Sm
3
0.65
Total Sulfur S mg/Sm
3
1.13
Table 2.1, Typical Elemental Composition of Natural Gas
Industrial application of natural gas 247
In comparison with the regional distribution of oil reserves, natural gas reserves are more
diversely distributed.
Major natural gas producing regions include North America (27%), led by the United States
(19%); the Former Soviet Union (26%), where the world’s largest production company is
located, Russia (20% of total worldwide production in 2008); and the Asia-Pacific Region
(13%).
The largest natural gas consumers are the United States and Russia (approximately 22% and
14%, respectively, of total worldwide consumption in 2008). They are followed by Canada,
Japan, the United Kingdom, China and Germany, each representing nearly 3% of worldwide
consumption.
In terms of the international gas trade, natural gas traded between different countries in
2008 represented over 26% of worldwide production and demonstrates significant potential
for growth, particularly as regards LNG (liquefied natural gas). In 2008, 19% of the gas
traded internationally was sold through pipelines and 7% as LNG. Japan and Spain are the
two largest importers of liquefied natural gas.
As regards South America, the largest reserves are found in Venezuela, Bolivia, Columbia,
Argentina and Peru, with a total of 6500 bcm. The countries with the highest consumption
are Argentina and Brazil, with a total of 55 bcm/year.
The international natural gas trade in this region is carried out between countries which are
interconnected via gas pipelines, such as Argentina with Bolivia, Chile and Uruguay and
Bolivia with Brazil and Argentina. For geopolitical reasons and due to differing economic
policies, a more universal natural gas transportation system which would allow gas to be
traded throughout the continent has not been developed. Multiple ports with liquefied
natural gas regasification terminals have been built to meet demand, reaching different
regions of the world where it is injected into the local distribution networks of each country.
Graph 1.2 shows gas pipelines and liquefied natural gas reception ports in the Southern
Cone.
Fig. 1.2. Liquefied Natural Gas Reception Terminals in South America. Reference (3)
2. Properties of Natural Gas and their Impact on Industrial Applications
Natural gas is a fossil fuel found underground, generated by the decomposition of organic
matter trapped between rocky strata of the Earth's crust. It is extracted from subterranean
deposits of gas, oil and gas or condensate, so it may be obtained alone or together with oil.
2.1 Composition of Natural Gas
Natural gas is a fuel found in deposits in its gas phase. It is colorless and odorless, non-toxic,
lighter than air and does not contain olefins (hydrocarbons produced during the process of
destructive distillation or reforming). It is constituted primarily by methane (CH4), usually
in a percentage of over 85% of volume. The remaining percentage is composed of higher
order hydrocarbons such as paraffins or isoparaffins. It also contains water vapor at varying
degrees of saturation, or condensed water. It may also contain carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
hydrogen sulphide and helium, among others. Table 2.1 shows the typical composition of
Argentine natural gas originating from the Northeast Basin.
If the gas contains enough carbon dioxide to cause its calorific value to fall below the values
specified in sales contracts it must be subjected to a process to extract this element, in
addition to hydrogen sulphide or other sulfur compounds causing it to be highly corrosive
and inadmissible for certain industrial applications.
Once extracted, the gas is treated for the purpose of removing undesirable components such
as water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds, condensable hydrocarbons and solid
and liquid particles. This process is known as "gas drying"; therefore, dry gas is gas which
has been dehydrated and subjected to a process in which condensable hydrocarbons such as
propane, butane pentanes and higher hydrocarbons have been extracted. The amounts
which may be recovered from the abovementioned components depend on the original
composition of the natural gas and the process used to dry it. Dry gases are also known as
lean gases, and wet gases are also known as rich gases.
Component Identification Unit Value
Methane C
1
mol% 91.15
Ethane C
2
mol% 5.56
Propane C
3
mol% 0.16
Carbon Dioxide CO
2
mol% 2.39
Nitrogen N
2
mol% 0.72
Other mol% 0.02
Water H
2
O mg/Sm
3
14.59
Sulfuric Acid H
2
SO
4
mg/Sm
3
0.65
Total Sulfur S mg/Sm
3
1.13
Table 2.1, Typical Elemental Composition of Natural Gas
Natural Gas248
2.2 Elemental Analysis of Natural Gas
Elemental analysis of a fuel allows the elements composing to be identified, making it
possible to determine the stoichiometric ratio as well as the products associated to the
combustion process. Table 2.2 shows a comparison of the typical elemental analysis of the
main fuels used in the industrial sector.
Fuel Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur Ashes
Natural Gas 76.0 23.2 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0
Liquefied Petroleum Gas 81.0 19.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Fuel Oil 6 86.6 10.6 0.4 0.1 2.0 0.1
Fuel Oil 5 86.1 12.0 0.1 0.1 1.7 0.0
Fuel Oil 2 86.3 13.1 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0
Kerosene 85.9 13.6 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0
Firewood 45.1 5.6 43.5 0.1 0.1 5.6
Sub-bituminous Coal 49.0 6.1 30.0 0.6 0.3 14.0
Bituminous Coal 72.2 5.6 11.8 1.3 1.7 7.4
Table 2.2. Typical Elemental Analysis of Industrial Fuels (% of mass)
2.3 Properties of Natural Gas
a) Density
Table 2.3 shows the absolute densities of different liquid and gas fuels.
Fuel Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur Ashes
Natural Gas 76.0 23.2 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0
Liquefied Petroleum Gas 81.0 19.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Fuel Oil 6 86.6 10.6 0.4 0.1 2.0 0.1
Fuel Oil 5 86.1 12.0 0.1 0.1 1.7 0.0
Fuel Oil 2 86.3 13.1 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0
Kerosene 85.9 13.6 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0
Firewood 45.1 5.6 43.5 0.1 0.1 5.6
Sub-bituminous Coal 49.0 6.1 30.0 0.6 0.3 14.0
Bituminous Coal 72.2 5.6 11.8 1.3 1.7 7.4
Table 2.3. Fuel Density
b) Heat Value of Natural Gas
The heat value of a fuel refers to the amount of energy released during complete combustion
of one mass unit of the fuel, with the fuel and oxidant at a reference temperature and
pressure. The properties of each fuel affect heat value in that the fewer inert elements the
gas contains, the greater its heta value will be. As can be observed in Table 2.2, natural gas is
a fuel with a high carbon and hydrogen content, making it the fuel with the highest heat
value after pure hydrogen. Figure 2.4 shows a comparison of the calorific value of different
fuels.
Fig. 2.4 Calorific value or Heat Value of different fuels.
However, the heat value of natural gas normally varies according to its content of inert
elements or heavy hydrocarbons, resulting in lower or higher caloric value, respectively.
2.4 Interchangeability of fuel Gases
Two gases are considered interchangeable when, distributed under the same pressure, in the
same network, feeding the same burners and without changes to regulation, they produce
equivalent combustion results: calorific flow and flame behavior, regardless of the
composition of the combustible gases.
The Wobbe index is the most frequently used indicator to establish criteria for the
interchangeability of gases. It is defined as a quotient of the gross calorific value based on
the square root of the relative density of the gas in relation to air under the same pressure
and temperature conditions.
W = PCS / d
Where:
GHV : gross heat value of fuel
d : relative density of gaseous fuel
When gases are interchanged, the value of the Wobbe index must be the same for both gases
in order to ensure that the calorific value of the burner remains constant.
Industrial application of natural gas 249
2.2 Elemental Analysis of Natural Gas
Elemental analysis of a fuel allows the elements composing to be identified, making it
possible to determine the stoichiometric ratio as well as the products associated to the
combustion process. Table 2.2 shows a comparison of the typical elemental analysis of the
main fuels used in the industrial sector.
Fuel Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur Ashes
Natural Gas 76.0 23.2 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0
Liquefied Petroleum Gas 81.0 19.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Fuel Oil 6 86.6 10.6 0.4 0.1 2.0 0.1
Fuel Oil 5 86.1 12.0 0.1 0.1 1.7 0.0
Fuel Oil 2 86.3 13.1 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0
Kerosene 85.9 13.6 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0
Firewood 45.1 5.6 43.5 0.1 0.1 5.6
Sub-bituminous Coal 49.0 6.1 30.0 0.6 0.3 14.0
Bituminous Coal 72.2 5.6 11.8 1.3 1.7 7.4
Table 2.2. Typical Elemental Analysis of Industrial Fuels (% of mass)
2.3 Properties of Natural Gas
a) Density
Table 2.3 shows the absolute densities of different liquid and gas fuels.
Fuel Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur Ashes
Natural Gas 76.0 23.2 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0
Liquefied Petroleum Gas 81.0 19.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Fuel Oil 6 86.6 10.6 0.4 0.1 2.0 0.1
Fuel Oil 5 86.1 12.0 0.1 0.1 1.7 0.0
Fuel Oil 2 86.3 13.1 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0
Kerosene 85.9 13.6 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0
Firewood 45.1 5.6 43.5 0.1 0.1 5.6
Sub-bituminous Coal 49.0 6.1 30.0 0.6 0.3 14.0
Bituminous Coal 72.2 5.6 11.8 1.3 1.7 7.4
Table 2.3. Fuel Density
b) Heat Value of Natural Gas
The heat value of a fuel refers to the amount of energy released during complete combustion
of one mass unit of the fuel, with the fuel and oxidant at a reference temperature and
pressure. The properties of each fuel affect heat value in that the fewer inert elements the
gas contains, the greater its heta value will be. As can be observed in Table 2.2, natural gas is
a fuel with a high carbon and hydrogen content, making it the fuel with the highest heat
value after pure hydrogen. Figure 2.4 shows a comparison of the calorific value of different
fuels.
Fig. 2.4 Calorific value or Heat Value of different fuels.
However, the heat value of natural gas normally varies according to its content of inert
elements or heavy hydrocarbons, resulting in lower or higher caloric value, respectively.
2.4 Interchangeability of fuel Gases
Two gases are considered interchangeable when, distributed under the same pressure, in the
same network, feeding the same burners and without changes to regulation, they produce
equivalent combustion results: calorific flow and flame behavior, regardless of the
composition of the combustible gases.
The Wobbe index is the most frequently used indicator to establish criteria for the
interchangeability of gases. It is defined as a quotient of the gross calorific value based on
the square root of the relative density of the gas in relation to air under the same pressure
and temperature conditions.
W = PCS / d
Where:
GHV : gross heat value of fuel
d : relative density of gaseous fuel
When gases are interchanged, the value of the Wobbe index must be the same for both gases
in order to ensure that the calorific value of the burner remains constant.
Natural Gas250
2.5 Characteristics of Natural Gas Combustion
Correct burning of natural gas requires the proper proportion of air and gas in order to
achieve complete combustion. The stoichiometric amount of air needed for complete
combustion is shown in Table 2.4 along with the amount of exhaust gases produced. In
addition, characteristic combustion values of other fuels traditionally used in the industry
are shown.
Fuel A
e
(a) G
ehe
(b) G
ese
(c) G
er
(d) H
2
O (e) NHV (f) W o (g)
Dv (h) CO
2
(i) E
a
(j)
Sm 3/kg Kg/kg Kcal/kg [-] %
Natural Gas 12.9 14.2 11.6 14.5 2.09 11.500 14.846 0.6 12.2 2
Liquefied
Petroleum Gas
12.2 13.3 11.2 13.5 1.71 11.400 8.875 1.65 13.5 2
Fuel oil 6 10.5 11.1 10.0 14.8 0.95 9.550 - - 16.2 35
Fuel oil 5 10.9 11.5 10.2 14.8 1.08 9.900 - - 15.7 30
Fuel oil 2 11.1 11.9 10.4 14.1 1.18 10.200 - - 15.5 20
Kerosene 11.2 12.0 10.5 14.2 1.22 10.300 - - 15.3 20
Firewood 4.0 4.7 4.0 8.7 0.50 3.500 - - 20.9 100
Sub-bituminous
Coal(m)
5.0 5.5 4.8 9.3 0.55 4.200 - - 18.9 75
Bituminous Coal 7.6 8.0 7.3 13.6 0.50 6.200 - - 18.4 75
Am 3: Volume measured in cubic meters under standard or normalized conditions
(a) Stoichiometric Air
(b) Wet Stoichiometric Exhaust Gasses
(c) Dry Stoichiometric Exhaust Gasses
(d) Real Exhaust Gasses considering characteristic operational air
(e) Mass of water generated per kg of burnt fuel
(f) NHV: Net Heat Value
(g) Wobbe Index
(h) Density relative to air
(i) Maximum or stoichiometric CO
2
(j) Excess of characteristic operational air
(k) Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG) of the type that is commercialized in the Metropolitan Region
of Chile
(l) San Pedro de Catamutún Carboniferous type (fuel analysis based on how it is received)
Table 2.4 Combustion Characteristic Values of Different Industrial Fuels
3. Characteristics of Natural Gas Flames and Combustion Products
The flame is the visible and calorific manifestation of the combustion process reaction. In
practice, there are different types of flames which vary according to the mixture of fuel and
oxidant. Given that the volume of air which participates in combustion is much greater than
that of combustible gas, it is ultimately control of air that which defines the shape and
dimensions of the flame.
i) Without Prior Mixing (Diffusion).
This refers to a long but low-temperature flame. It is yellow in color, due mainly to the
presence of free carbon which has reached only the temperature necessary to become
incandescent without oxidizing. The fuel reaches only the first stages of oxidation, with low
combustion and burning efficiencies, so it requires a longer reaction time in order to achieve
complete combustion. It is appropriate for use in homes or larger combustion chambers.
ii) With Prior Mixing (Premixing).
Premixing improves the homogenization of the fuel and oxidant mixture in order to increase
the amount of fuel burned, producing short flames of bluish color, at high temperature and
with a highly defined geometry (Figure 3.3). If not enough oxidant is incorporated to ensure
complete combustion, a second zone of colorless flame is produced, creating a plume which
surrounds the blue flame.
Fig. 3.3. Premixed Laminar Flame
a) Flame Temperature
Theoretical combustion temperature cannot be determined empirically, and corresponds to
the temperature that would be reached by combustion products if the heat released during