Peterson A.T., Hewitt V., Vaughan H., Kellogg A.T. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing through American History, 1900 to the Present. Volume 1: 1900-1949

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PART I

The Social Significance

of Dress, 1900–1949

The United States in 1900–1949:

An Overview

Dramatic changes occurred during the first half of the twentieth century

in the United States. The country’s population transformed from a rural,

economically divided ‘‘melting pot’’ at the beginning of the century to

a patriotic, technologically advanced country at war by the close of

the 1940s. This transformation in American society can be seen within

the path of fashion during this time period. This volume will describe the

parallel courses of societal change and fashion evolution.

Before one can discuss the course of fashion, one must recognize the

historical changes that affect fashion. This introduction seeks to outline

the historical landscape of the early half of the twentieth century. By

describing the political, societal, and cultural themes of this time period,

the reader becomes acquainted with the ideas that shape the fashion

trends.

The population of the United States nearly doubled from 76,094,000

in 1900 to 148,665,000 in 1949 (U.S. Census Bureau 2002). Not only did

the population increase, but its makeup significantly changed as well. Re-

markable advances in living conditions, working conditions, and medicine

resulted in an increase of almost twenty years in life expectancy (U.S.

Census Bureau 2002). At the start of the century, most of the population

lived in rural areas, but by midcentury, much of the population clustered

in urban centers to take advantage of the job opportunities in the

factories.

There was a marked economic divide between the rich and the poor in

the country during the first decade of the century. There were very few

wealthy people, but they lived in a grand and ostentatious style that the

rest of Americans could only dream of affording. They lived in great man-

sions that often took up entire city blocks or on country estates with doz-

ens of rooms. Their homes featured indoor plumbing, electricity, and fine

furnishings from around the world. They could afford all of luxury and

convenience that money could buy, but they comprised a very small part

of the population.

Many more Americans were very poor. They lived in tenements often

consisting of only one or two rooms for the entire family. In poor families,

men, women, and children worked to earn enough money to make ends

meet. They did not have indoor plumbing or electricity.

Many prominent middle-class people and politicians, such as Jane

Addams and Theodore Roosevelt, took up the cause to improve the lives

of poor Americans through educational programs and support services.

This activism, known as the Progressive movement, reflected the optimis-

tic attitude that the nation adopted at the turn of the century. Progressives

felt they had an opportunity to better themselves and their fellow citizens.

The nation’s refreshed, positive attitude that marked the first decade

of the century dissolved into a practical somberness when the United

States entered World War I (WWI) in 1917. The nation’s entry into the

war broke its trend of isolation from the outside world. The economy

shifted to meet the needs of the wartime nation, and much of the work-

force was enlisting and being shipped overseas. At home, frugality took

over consumer spending and household consumption.

The beginning of the second decade of the twentieth century was

plagued by high inflation, widespread unemployment, deep cuts in govern-

ment spending, a return of soldiers (many of whom were disabled), and a

decrease in per capita income (Perrett 1982, 31). Europe lay in ruins from

WWI. The United States stepped forward as a new world power, shifting

itself from an industrial-based to a service-based economy. Although the

change brought prosperity to the service industry, other business sectors

suffered. Shipping, railroads, coal mining, and textiles businesses were all

in financial trouble, and many farms, then the largest sector of the econ-

omy in the United States, filed bankruptcy (Perrett 1982, pp. 120 1).

Although the rapidly growing economy resulted in a labor shortage

during the 1920s, the growth in personal wealth traditionally associated

with the decade did not apply equally to all; by 1927, the average person

realized an increase in annual savings of only $11 over 1899 (Perrett

1982, 324).

THE UNITED STATES IN 1900–1949

As the second decade of the twentieth century drew to a close, disaster

struck on October 24, 1929, when the stock market collapsed. The

onslaught of mass unemployment from the disintegration of the business

sector and failure of farms caused by flooding and drought devastated mil-

lions of people worldwide. The world output of goods fell by 38 percent,

whereas unemployment in the United States soared from 5 percent in the

1920s to 33 percent by 1933 (McKay 1999, 946). Despite many efforts on

the part of state and federal government, the recovery was slow and

incomplete until the advent of World War II (WWII).

Production to support the war efforts of WWII pulled the country

out of the depression. With unemployment reaching 8,120,000 of a popu-

lation of 132,122,000, the war created a way out of poverty. For many

men, military service provided a steady income, and, for the first time in

American history, women in high numbers were going outside of the

home to work. The war affected the availability of goods, as well as

changed the fabric of our society.

POLITICS IN AMERICA

At the beginning of the century, Progressivism played a central role in the pol-

itics of America. Although the Progressive movement meant many different

things to different people, improving life for everyone was the core concept of

the movement. Most Progressives felt the government should help solve

social problems, such as labor issues, poverty, slums, and disenfranchisement.

Throughout the first two decades of the 1900s, politicians and activists

worked to resolve the labor unrest that marked the period. Violent strikes

led to government involvement, and eventually there was an improvement

in factory conditions, hours, and workers’ rights.

During the terms of Presidents Roosevelt and Taft, new laws were

enacted that expanded government control of business, immigration, and

government services. An income tax was added to pay for this new, larger

government. Citizens also gained more control of their government. The

Seventeenth Amendment allowed voters to directly elect senators, and, by

1920, women had been granted the right to vote.

During the first years of Woodrow Wilson’s first term, he focused on

similar social advancements, but his attention was divided by the turmoil

of WWI in Europe. He avoided U.S. involvement in the conflict until

1917, but he could not avoid the lasting impact that the war would have

on the country. Women entered the workplace to take the place of the

men who were off fighting the war, and the government expanded its

powers to manage the war effor t.

Politics in America

Warren G. Harding was elected president of the United States in

1920 on a platform calling for a ‘‘return to normalcy’’ after WWI, promis-

ing to reduce American involvement in international politics and focus on

domestic issues. For the first time, the federal government asserted itself

into the daily lives of its citizen through the ratification of the ratified

1919, went into effect in 1920 and ratified 1920 Amendments to the con-

stitution. Before 1920, the only exposure Americans had to the federal

government was through the postal system.

The Eighteenth Amendment made the distilling, brewing, and sale of

alcoholic beverages illegal in 1920, a prohibition not repealed until 1933.

Often ignored by the general public and law enforcement officials, the

Eighteenth Amendment did little to prevent the sale of liquor in Amer-

ica. However, the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, also in

1920, redefined the political landscape. Women now had the right to

vote, and the League of Women Voters worked to educate women about

politics, studied issues important to women, and influenced politicians.

President Herbert Hoover had the distinction of ushering America

through the first three years of the Great Depression, from 1929 to 1932.

Unfortunately, Hoover was unable to produce any positive changes in the

America economy, and, in 1932, the American public elected Franklin

Delano Roosevelt (FDR) and his ‘‘New Deal’’ to lead the country. FDR

strove to reform capitalism to prevent another such occurrence as the

Great Depression and launched numerous government-sponsored pro-

grams designed to put Americans back to work.

The grip of the Great Depression was loosened when America entered

WWII on December 7, 1941, when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor.

As FDR increased expenditures to mobilize the United States, unemploy-

ment almost disappeared as men were drafted. The government reclassi-

fied 55 percent of the jobs previously held by men, allowing women and

blacks to fill them.

By 1942, the government began rationing sugar, gasoline, and coffee,

followed by rationing of meat, fat, cheese, canned goods, leather, and

shoes in 1943. Salvage drives produced millions of tons of iron, scrap

steel, and tin, all for the war effort. The War Production Board began

severely restricting the amount of yardage used in garments.

ETHNICITY IN AMERICA

During the first decade of the century, immigrants flowed into the coun-

try, with 8,795,400 from 1901 to 1910, a majority of them coming from

Italy and the Soviet Union. Hundreds of thousands of immigrants

THE UNITED STATES IN 1900–1949

traveled to America’s shore from Germany, Ireland, Scandinavia, Canada,

the United Kingdom, the Caribbean, and Mexico (U.S. Bureau of Citi-

zenship and Immigration Services). During this time, the United States

added restrictions on who could immigrate to the country. WWI effec-

tively stopped mass migration to the United States.

By the end of WWI, nearly all Asian immigrants were banned from

entering the United States, and other immigrants had to demonstrate that

they were literate in their native language. These changes were the begin-

ning of additional restrictions on immigration that would emerge through

the remainder of the early 1900s.

Immigrants entered the United States but rarely assimilated. Instead, they

attempted to retain as much of their ethnic identity and cultural practices by

settling in pockets within neighborhoods, building stores, churches, and

services identical to those left behind in their native lands. This separatism,

combined with language barriers, often led to conflict and discrimination.

During WWI, more than 500,000 African Americans migrated north in

search of factory work. After the war was over, fierce competition erupted in

the north between African American and working-class whites for jobs and

economical housing. Racial tensions, once restricted to the south, now

plagued many northern urban centers, resulting in frequent race riots. Legal

segregation as well as Jim Crow laws left African Americans in isolation

without a voice to object to their situation. Activists Booker T. Washington

and W. E. B. DuBois worked to develop solutions to the racial tension and

prejudice. Other minorities had similar discrimination and poverty prob-

lems. Hispanic and Asian women were frequently relegated to domestic serv-

ice, textile mills, and industrial laundries (Rowbotham 1997, pp. 159 60).

Ethnic heritage was not worn on one’s sleeve in the 1940s. Who was

fighting with or against the Allies would determine how a recent immi-

grant was received by the community, especially in search of employment.

Ethnic neighborhoods were tolerated as long as they did not try to mingle

with mainstream society. Segregation was enforced for people of color,

although black soldiers and Native Americans gave their lives for the same

country. Although some people of lighter color would try to ‘‘pass’’ and

blend in with the majority white population, there were those who were

defiant and tried to make a statement with their activities and wardrobe.

ART AND ENTERTAINMENT

Music and dance remained prominent forms of entertainment through

the first half of the twentieth century. In the 1900s and 1910s, many

households had a piano, and people would purchase sheet music of the

Art and Entertainment

popular songs. Although the radio had been invented, it was not a wide-

spread consumer item. People heard new music at concerts, dancehalls,

and in the theater.

The 1920s were often dubbed the ‘‘Jazz Age,’’ and nothing was more

important in the decade than jazz music. It dominated Broadway and

vaudeville musical theaters. Composers and song writers such as George

Gershwin, Jerome Kern, and Irving Berlin and dancers such as Josephine

Baker, Isadora Duncan, and Irene Castle helped solidify the genre for the

public.

The 1930s and 1940s were also shaped by music and dance. Young

singles and couples alike packed dancehalls for jitterbug marathons. Swing

music became the rage, and Glenn Miller’s orchestra led the trend. Ball-

room dancing also helped couples escape the bleak times of the Depres-

sion by envisioning themselves gracing the dance floor in a glamorous

gown or top hat and tails such as those donned by Ginger Rogers and

Fred Astaire in movies. During WWII, dancing was a great escape from

the war, and girls would fill the United Service Organizations (USO)

halls when the boys were home on leave or ready to ship out.

Although transatlantic radio broadcasts had been possible since 1904,

it was not until 1920 when events were broadcast through the medium to

the public. Radio not only transported the new jazz music, but it also

became a powerful tool used by politicians to influence voters. FDR regu-

larly held ‘‘fireside chats’’ via the radio to bolster suppor t for his political

agenda during the Great Depression.

By the 1940s, radio was the lifeline for Americans, providing news,

music, and entertainment. Programming included soap operas, quiz

shows, children’s hours, mystery stories, fine drama, and sports. Families

would gather around the radio for evening entertainment. The govern-

ment relied heavily on radio for updates on the war and propaganda. The

message was clear and sent often, that it was everyone’s job to fight for

freedom and support the United States by purchasing war bonds, volun-

teering, and keeping a look out for spies.

Despite radio’s popularity, it could not compete with ‘‘moving pic-

tures.’’ The first motion pictures appeared in penny arcades in the 1890s

and became the preferred form of entertainment after WWI. The United

States dominated the industry, and short, slapstick films were produced at

the rate of two or more per week (McKay 1999, 938). Soon the short

comedies evolved into longer films with story lines, many containing

social commentary. The influence of film was felt nationwide, and, by

1925, 113 million people were receiving the messages broadcast across the

silver screen on a weekly basis.

THE UNITED STATES IN 1900–1949

The advent of sound in films brought an entirely new dimension to

the theater experience, at a time when America needed to ‘‘escape to the

movies’’ even more: the Great Depression. Escape from unemployment

and hunger could be purchased for a few cents.

The forties were the heyday for movies, but even Hollywood was

dominated by the driving force of war. The Office of War declared movies

an essential industry for morale and propaganda. Hollywood design, how-

ever, had to pass a censorship board to guard against provocative costumes

and maintain restrictions on the use of fabric and materials. Movie themes

were romantic and pro-United States, making villains of the Germans

and Japanese.

DAILY LIFE

The Industrial Revolution that had started during the previous century

had transformed the economy and work life for most Americans. The ma-

chinery in the factories replaced skilled craftsmen. A majority of jobs called

for unskilled workers, and those who filled these jobs found themselves

easily replaced and job security a scarcity. This insecurity led to labor strife

and activism during the remainder of the first half of the century.

The mass production techniques that were perfected during WWI were

quickly applied to consumer industries. Assembly line practices were used

to manufacture everything from household goods to clothing, bringing

large quantities of goods to the mass market quickly and inexpensively.

WWI acted as a catalyst and accelerated changes in the economy and

advances in technologies. Radio, movies, telephones, airplanes, and auto-

mobiles made it easier and faster to communicate with geographically dis-

tant areas. In 1895, only four automobiles were registered, but by 1920,

the number reached more than 8 million, and by 1927 that number had

nearly doubled (McKay 1999, 251). In the first decades of the century,

motoring was seen as an exotic sport taken up by wealthy thrill-seekers. It

was not until the national highway system was improved and expanded in

the 1930s that automobiles became a popular form of transportation,

encouraging people to travel the country for vacations.

The prosperity of the 1920s meant people were working less and

socializing more. Horse races, dog races, cotillions, and society parties all

came into vogue, replacing the traditional luncheons and teas. In general,

society was more active and pursued more active interests, especiall y ath-

letics. Americans became more health conscious. Dieting and exercise

became popular, and a slim suntanned figure replaced the plump figure

and pale countenance of previous generations.

Daily Life