Ответы к ГОСу по стилистике английского языка

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3.1. The subject field of Stylistics.

Differentiation w/in it.

Style (Gr stilos) -used to denote the

instrument of writing. in ancient Rome

stilus – the manner of writing.

Stylistics – the mod name of the field of

knowledge that was called in the dif-nt

way in dif-nt time:

Aristotle (4 BC) – rhetoric and poetics

preceded stylistics. At his times – a lot

of illiterate people who couldn’t analyze

the text. A. had a nickname “reader” –

started to analyze the text, figured out

hidden meanings, gave names to dif-те

stylistiс devices.

Hermeneutics (interpretation), from the

name of a place – connected

w/interpretation of a Bible.

Larin (20s of 20

cent, used Rus

materials)-«Семантические этюды»,

one of the 1

pure stylisticians,

explained how the word could acquire

dif-те meanings.

Sherba – gave lessons of linguistic

analysis of the text (from German to

Rus-n). Stylistics didn’t exist then.

Late 50s – the author of the 1

pure

linguistic app-ch to stylistics – «Очерки

стилистики» Гальперин + Кузнец

(жен) 1960 – in Rus-n; М.Ю. Скребнев

«Стилистика англ яз» (60-е),

“Fundamental Stylistics” – 1994 in Eng

Arnold – 1973

V.V. Vinogradov – studied Rus lang

Rus depart-nt: M.B. Borisova, O.B.

Sirotinina, Yu.V. Kamenskaya

Our dep-nt: Kolokolnikova,

Ovsyannikova, Kazakova, Ermakova,

Maltseva, Murzaeva (comparative

stylistics)

French dep-nt: Kolosova, Komarova

St. Petersburg: Skaftimov, Oksmon

The subject field of Stylistics

St-cs has the theoretical basis of

linguistic and literary app-ches

Up to the 70s: 2 st-cs: ling+literary, now

– a comb-n of both

Wind Dowson: we may app-ch st-cs as

a discipline (-a subj for research) and as

a theory (-comb-n of ling+ literary

criticism).

The subj of st-cs as research field –

lang+literature→theory+practice

(interpreting the text).

Stylistics – not a unified whole. it may

be suddivided in dif-те subfields:

1. prescriptive st-cs (нормативная)

studies the best way of expressing

yourself (practically)

2. comperative st-cs (сопоставит.)

studies the ways of expression in 2

lang-s (connected w/ the theory of

translation)- Федоров

3. functional st-cs – studies the func-

nal styles (in dif. situations), connected

w/ sociolinguistics – Якобсон, Кожина,

Прибыток, Скребнев

4. statistical st-cs – studies

peculiarities of dif. texts and styles of dif.

authors. connected w/textology (ex. #

and kinds of dif. prepos-ns).

5. decoding st-cs (стилистика

декодирования) – w/in it subdivision

into phonology-l, lexical and so on. the

term was offered by Am. scholar

Michael Riffaterre. He was the 1

who

offered some methods and notions in

Info Theory (IT). But wasn’t the 1

introduce the mathematical methods to

3.2. Tropes. Metaphor and Simile.

Stylistic semisiology: all the tropes

are connected w/ the study of

semantic change.

IT: all stylistic devices are deviations

from the norm (in quantity or

quality).

J. Leech: tropes – figurative or literal

Prof. Skrebnev «Очерк теории

стилистики», 1970

Tropes may be called figures of

replacement:

1. Figures of Quantity

1) Hyperbole (overstatement)

– the exaggerated

proportions of some notions

are given. Quantity’s taken

at random: to look like a

mln dollars.

2) Meiosis (understatement) –

diminishing of smth: I say,

shall we…?

 Litotes – smth’s stated,

but expressed w/opposite

words

2. Figures of Quality

1) Metaphor – based on

similarity b/w/ what’s said

and what’s meant (not

evident for the reader)

2) Metonymy – based on

contiguity (смежность).

The connection b/w 2

things is logical not

figurative meaning

involved (I like Chaykovsky

– his music).

3) Irony – based on opp-n b/

w what’s said and what’s

meant. The reader is not

desired. He sees that irony

is like a mask that shields

the real meaning. Can’t

exist if you don’t see it.

Metaphor

-the central figure among the tropes.

Sh. Bally “Очерки теории

стилистики”: our lang’s a graveyard

of metaphors (we use everyday

dead metaphors). Ex. A hand of the

clock

When descriptions of smth differ

from the definition in the dictionary

it’s metaphor.

Structure of metaphor (& simile)

1) Tenor (тема) – what’s

being discussed & is used

in it’s literal meaning

2) Vehicle (образ) – always

present

3) Ground (основание) – not

here, have to excavate it.

It’s to be reconstructed.

Some scholars metaphor is incl into

the gr of comparative tropes (like

simile).

Simile (образное сравнение): Ex.

Robert Burns “Love’s like a red rose”

Comparison (логич.срав-е) –

compare things that belong to the

same class (ex. The girl is beautiful

like her mother).

Simile – similarity isn’t always

obvious. Has conjunction words

(like, as): ex. I (tenor) wonder lonely

(ground) as a cloud (vehicle).

Metaphor’s a compressed simile

whereonly part of the structure’s

represented. We can transform met-

3.3. Decoding stylistics (DS). Foregrounding.

The term DS, 1

suggested by M. Riffaterre,

does not mean that we propose to exclude

intuition and personal judgment and provide

instead some mechanical technique of stylistic

analysis. Intuition is welcome, only - verified by

what is actually said in the text. The term

'decoding' implies that we concentrate our

attention on the receiving end of Shannon's

chain of communication (objective reality —

transmitter/encoder — message/text -

receiver/decoder - objective reality surrounding

the addressee) and define our basic notions in

conformity with IT. DS furnishes a theoretical

basis for text interpretation. It is a body of

research regarding a literary text not so much as

a result of its author's efforts, but as a source of

impressions for the reader, with its

pragmatic effect based on the understanding

of lang in a particular stylistic context. In

such stylistic analysis we are concerned with the

message and not with the individual style of the

author.

The main concept here – foregrounding (f).

The idea of f. app-d 1

in the Prague School. In

foregrounding the reader's attention is attracted

to the formal means through which the meaning

is conveyed, and the interpretation of sense

demands some creative effort on the part of the

reader. The notion of f. is more comprehensive

than that of a stylistic device or trope. F. - a

special contextual organ-n focusing on reader's

attention on some elements of the contents of

the message and establishing meaningful

relations b/w juxtaposed or distant elements of

the same or different levels and the text as a

whole. Foregrounding includes: coupling,

convergence, defeated expectancy, salient

feature, strong position. They differ from

expressive means known as tropes and stylistic

figures bec they possess a generalizing force

and function and provide structural cohesion of

the text and the hierarchy of its meanings and

images, bringing some to the fore and shifting

others to the background.

Coupling - a semantically relevant appearance

of equivalent elements in equivalent positions in

the text. C-ng was suggested and worked out by

the American scholar S. Levin. The possibilities

of c-ng are almost unlimited. C-ng is esp

pronounced in poetry, in proverbs, in aphorisms.

Ex: "Lend your money and lose your friend". The

equivalence of positions is syntactic and the

equivalence of el-nts is lexical and phonetical, it

stresses the ironical idea that lending money to

friends is a double loss because demanding

one's money back is futile and will make the

friend angry. C-ng has many points of similarity

with parallelism but paral-sm is above all

associated with syntactic repetition, and in c-ng

other types of positional equivalence are also

possible.

In Defeated Expectancy(DE) some el-nt of the

text receives prominence due to an interruption

in the pattern of predictability. An unexpected

change may be created due to some

combination of extra irregularity. The low

predictability el-nts disturb the pattern which the

reader has been conditioned to expect. This

causes a temporary sense of disorientation

compelling the reader's attention. DE - mostly

characteristic of humour and satire. Ex: A

drunken G.I. shouts to his companion: "I cannot

take another minute of it! The Army is brutal,

dehumanized and full of morons. It's time

something was done. When I get back to the

barracks, I'll write my mother about it." The 1

sent-s make the reader expect that the soldier is

ready for some action of revolt, but not to

the study of philology (1

were Weaver

+ Wiener).

One of the central notion of IT – code (-

a # of rules for organizing signes. using

the code Adresser encodes the info + w/

the help of technical means sends the

info to the Receiver, then it should be

decoded+ addressee gets the info)

Addresser (objective reality)→

transmitter (writer)-signal (message)→

channel (text/noise)-signal (mes-ge)→

receiver (reader)→addressee (obj.

reality). Версия в скобках – by M.

Riffaterre

Codes in dif. fields:

1) natural (insect’s mov-nts)

2) artificial (created by people)

Noise – the lack of background info – a

techn. term. Some factors that prevent

the destination of info (text’s spoiled,

some parts’re missing).

Subcodes:

 semantical

 lexical

 phonetic

 syntactic

 estographic (position of

letters)

↓

(Phonetic

Lexical

Syntactical) → stylistics

+analysis on the level of

graphics

+textual level

R. Jakobson – simplified the scheme:

addresser→code/contact/context/messa

ge →addressee.

J. Richards adds the development –

what a reader adds to the text (must find

the proves in the text).

r to simile by enlargement.

Subtypes of metonymy:

1) The use of a symbol

instead of the things

symbolized (septer –

скипетр & crown -

royalty).

2) The use of the cause for

the effect or on the

contrary (I’m earning my

bread by sweat of my

brow – the effect of hard

work)

3) The use of an instrument

(Writer’s earning money

w/his pen) for an action or

container (He gulped

down 2 glasses) for the

contained.

Synecdoche – a part is put for a

whole or a whole for the part (She

was surrounded by painty lips &

heavy blossoms).

Allegory’s based on similarity, is

used in fables & satire. «Волк на

псарне» (Крылов) – war w/

Napoleon.

Antonomasia – based on contiguity

(telling names – Don Juan)

Honest Desception (J. Leech) – a

contradictory WC. A distinctive way

of device called oxymoron.

J. Leech – paradox – a statement

where there’s a contradiction b/w

what’s supposed to be a universal

truth & smth that contradicts it.

Aphorism – the same form as

paradox; one sent w/deep ideas (If

you want to make your children good

make them happy – O. Wilde).

complain to his mother, this is unexpected and

amusingly childish. The decision is made

prominent being abruptly detached from the rest

of the context.

In convergence several stylistic devices

converge to produce one striking effect, to

create one image or to fulfill some other function

together. It’s very interesting bec in it the

relationship and dif-ce b/w fore-ing and stylistic

devices is most transparent. In "A Portrait of the

artist as a young man" Joyce depicts his

protagonist in the state of exaltation: His cheeks

were aflame, his body was aglow, his limbs

were trembling. On and on he strode far out

over the sands singing wildly to the sea, crying

to greet the life that had cried to him." The

reader feels how excited the hero is as he

perceives the anaphoric parallel constr-ns, high-

flown archaic metaphoric synonyms aflame and

aglow used as epithets, but insistent repetition

of on, rendering unstoppable energy of motion,

metaphorical personification of life - all these

make the reader share the hero's feelings.

Salient feature is smth in the text that the

reader usually notices at once, it’s smth that

catches the eye. Ex: the 66 Sonnet by

Shakespeare.

There are several salient features in this famous

poem. 1) It’s actually one sentence; 2) the

beginning and the ending are similar; 3) the

polysyndeton i.e. the repetition in close

succession of the conjunction 'and' in the

beginning of the majority of lines; 4) contrast.

Everything good is wronged and everything evil

prospers. This prompts the most important step

of interpretation - universal injustice and cruelty

makes the poet indignant.

Strong position. The beginnings and the

endings. The beginning is very important — the

reader tries to guess what will follow. The

ending draws a line for all versions and

prognoses. It’s also imp-nt to study the

connection b/w the beginning and the ending.

The title is also imp-nt. Strong position is a sort

of a trademark of the author.

J. Austen:a certain system in titles (Sense and

Sensibility; Pride and Prejudice)