Ответы к ГОСу по фонетике английского языка

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1.1. The phoneme (it’s aspects,

modifications). Methods of

phonological analysis.

The idea of the phenomenon (the phoneme)

was not formulated until the mid 30s of the

cent.

The 1

gr of scholars (the Prague school –

N. Trubetskoy). One of the most detailed

definitions (Vjacheslav Vasilyev): the

phoneme is the main linguistic unit realizes

in speech in the form of speech sounds and

apposable to other phonemes of the same

language to distinguish the meaning of

words.

Phoneme – 3 aspects:

a) Functional

The function of every component of the

phonetic system is discriminative – the

distinction of one word from another.

The opposition of ph. in the same phonetic

environment differentiates morphemes and

words (ex. Sleeper-sleepy – morphemes;

light-like - words).

b) Material

The ph. is realized in speech in the form of

allophones.

/d/ - occlusive, plosive, forelingual, apical,

alveolar, lenise, voiced.

Principle allophones – don’t undergo any

distinguishable changes in the chain of

speech.

Subsidiary allophones – modify in phonetic

circumstances (ex. Before another occlusive

consonant [d] is produced w/out any plosion

– bad times; before [r] it becomes post-

alveolar – dry, dream).

 Allophones of the same ph never

occur in the similar phonetic

contexts

 They are entirely predictable acc.

to the phonetic environment.

In actual speech the ph are modified by the

following factors: phono-stylistic, dialectial,

individual.

Most of the info about the ph – not from

phonemic (abstract) distinctions but from

phonetic (material) ones. Phonetic evidence

is esp important for lexical& gram meaning

awa for stylistic aspects of any

communication.

c) Abstract

You can’t change even 1 feature w/out

changing the meaning

Ex. /d/ voiced - /t/ voiceless

/d/ forelingual (day) -/g/ backlingual (gay)

The articulatory features which form the

invariant of the phoneme – relevant.

(irrelevant – ex. Aspiration in the system of

eng sounds)

Methods

Ph-s can be discovered by the method of

minimal pairs (finding pairs of words which

differ in 2 ph only). All the ph of any lang

form a system of oppositions in which 1 ph

is usually opposed to any other ph in at

least one position. If the substitution of 1

sound for another results in the change of

meaning the communicative sounds are

different phonemes. The method helps to

prove whether the phonemic difference

relevant or not, whether the opposition is sg,

double or multiple.

Sg op-n: /t/ - /d/ only one distinctive feature:

voiceless – voiced (time - dime)

Double: /p/ - /d/: voiceless ,fortis – voiced,

lenis;

bilabial – forelingual ( pay –

day)

Multiple: /b/ - /h/: voiced lenis – voiceless

1.3. The main types of phonetic

modifications

Consonants

Ph mod-ns take place w/in the words

which are connected and at their

boundaries. All the sounds are prone

to change.

Assimilation is the adaptive

modification of a consonant by a

neighbouring consonant in the speech

chain.

Can be:

1) progressive (a sound is

influenced by a preceding sound)

ex. Bridge – score

[dζ]→[s]→[ς]

lenis – fortis - fortis

lingular

forelingual

apical

palate-alveolar – alveolar – palate-

alveolar

occlusive-constrictive – constr – const

noise-noise

bicentral – unicentral – bicentral

oral

2) regressive (anticipatory) the

sound is influenced by the

following sound

ten balloons

[m]←[n] [b], because [b] is bilabial

Good night – both alveolar, but [d]

disappears, because of [n] → g’ night

3) partial – only one or several

distinctive features are modified

and sounds become similar

(bridge score)

4) complete – the sound becomes

absolutely similar to the

influencing sound in all distinctive

features (good night)

5) coalescence – a mutual

influence, where two sounds

fuse into a sg new one

won’t she? [w∂Ụtςi]

alveolar, occlusive, plosive [t] and

palate-alveolar, constrictive [ς] →[tς] –

palate-alveolar, a new sound –

affricate (occlusive-constr), partial ass-

Practically in all cases – the change of

the place of articulation

Then the manner of articulation:

-loss of plosion (glad to see u);

-nasal (not now)

-lateral (table, at last)

Accommodation is the adaptive

modification of V+C or C+V type.

Affects lip position →labialization of

consonants: appears under the

influence of the neighbouring back

vowels: pool, woman

It’s also possible to speak ab the

spread lip position of consonants

followed or preceded by front vowels

[i] – meet and [i:] – team, meat

Such sounds as [r], [tς], [dζ] are

pronounced by most speakers w/

rounded lips ever after [i:].

In the casual discourse: in the

intervocalic position voiceless cons-ts

change their voicing value and

become voiced: [t] → [d] (letter)

Elision (zero reduction) is the loss of

sounds. Min – in slow, careful speech;

max – in rapid, careless speech

1) loss of [h] is widespread

here he is ['iәr i iz]

1.4. Relevant/irrelevant articulatory

features of consonants and vowels

The majority of phoneticians name 3

articul. features of consonants which are

relevant:

1) Work of the vocal cords and the force

of exalation

Voiced (lenis) – voiceless (fortis)

B, d, g, z p, t, k, s

2) Active organ of speech and the place

of obstruction

Labial – lingual – glottal

P, b, w, f – k, d, t, s, g – h

3) Manner of the production of noise

and a type of obstruction

Occlusive (stops) – constrictive

P,b,k,d,t f,θ,∂,l,ς

/there are ph-s called affricates (occlusive-

constr). These sounds are complex.

There’re 2 elements that are distinctly

heard there. 2 types of obstruction at the

same time – occlusive-constr [tς], [dζ]/

Dif-nt opinions concerning what type of

opposition should be considered important

I. Vasilyev: the type of obstruction+the

manner of the production of noise –

basis for clas-n

i. Occlusive (w/out complete

obstruction)

ii. Constrictive (w/ an incomplete

obstruction)

The phonological relevance of this feature

can be proved by the method of min pairs:

t-s →tea-sea; p-f →pull-full

each of the 2 classes is subdivided into:

 Noise

 Sonorants

Acc to the prevailing factor: noise-tone

(the degree of noise), noise cons-ts are

divided into (manner of articul-n):

1) Plosive (stops)

2) Affricates

Constrictive sonorants’re divided into

(place of articul-n):

1) Medial

2) Lateral

II. Others: the degree of noise – the

main feature:

1) Noise

a) Occlusive

b) Constrictive

c) Occlus.-constr

2) Sonorants

a)occlusive

b) constrictive

b.1. medial

b.2. lateral

The phonological relevance of the feature

is proved by the method of min pairs:

bake-make

Both classifications are effective + used

The position of the soft palate is also

taken into consideration. Acc to it

consonants:

 Oral (p,t,v,s,r,l)

 Nasal (m,n,η)

The feature is considered phonol-ly

irrelevant, cause there’re no 2 sounds in

English which differ only acc to this

feature. But it’s the 4

principle of clas-n of

cons-ts.

There’re 6 criteria for description + class-n

of vowels:

1) Stability of articul-n – 2 varieties:

a) The tongue position is stable, the

vowel is relatively

pure→monophthong

b) The tongue pos-n changes, the

vowel consists of 2 el-ts→dipgthong

fortis;

bilabial – pharyngal

acclusive –

constrictive (be - he)

The main problems of phonological analysis

1) To establish the inventory of

phonemes

2) To define the phonetic status of the

sound in the neutral position

3) The theory of distinctive features

The final aim: the identification of the

phonemes and finding out the patterns

of relationship into which they fall as

the sound system of the lang.

Methods of finding out phonemes and

allophones:

1. The distributional method

Laws:

 Alloph-s of dif-nt ph occur in the

same phonetic context: try-dry

 Alloph-s of the same ph never

occur in the same phonetic

context

3 types of distribution

1) Complementary (if a sound occurs in a

certain ph-c context and another sound

occurs only in a dif-nt context, no two

words can be distinguished by means

of the opp-n b/w these 2 sounds – the

2 sets of phonetic contexts are

complementing each other and the 2

sounds are class-d as all-nes of the

same phoneme.

Cases when 2 sounds are in compl

distrib-n but are not alloph-s of the

same ph: /h/ never occurs word-finally -

/η/ word initially

2) Contrastive distr-n (more/less different

sounds occur in the same ph context,

they should be all-nes of dif-nt ph-mes)

3) Free variation of a sg phoneme (the

sounds both occur in the lang but the

speakers are inconsistent: галоши -

калоши)

2. The semantic method

Is based on a phonemic rule that ph-mes

can distinguish morphemes and words

when opposed to one another.

The method consists of systematic

substitution of the sound for another one in

order to find out in which cases such

substitution leads to a change of meaning

(phonetic context remains the same)

Commutation test – finding min pairs of

words and their gram forms: pin – bin -/p/

→/b/ - meaning’s changed

[p] aspirated →[p] – the meaning’s not

changed, only the wrong type of

pronunciation.

2) [l] tend to be lost when

preceded by [ō] – always [‘

ﺭ:wiz]

3) Alveolar plosives ([t], [d]) are

always elided in case the

cluster is followed by another

consonant:

next day [‘neks ‘dei], just

one [‘dζ^s ‘w^n]

there also exist the so-called historical

elision

a) initial cons-s in “wright”,

“know”,”knife”

b) the medial cons-t [t]

“fasten”, ‘listen”, “castle”

4) the ways the sounds are elided

in general:

whole syllables – library [‘laibri:]

5) some words are esp prone to

elision:

“of” + cons-t: a cup of tea [k^pә’ti:],

going to [gon^], want to [won^]

Liaison – the process of introducing

sounds b/w syllables or words to help

pronounce them in a more smooth

way:

a) “linking” r: clear [kliә] – clearer

[‘kliәrә], teacher of English

b) “intrusive” r – sometimes appear

b/w the vowels. It’s not wanted

here, doesn’t exist, but appears

in speech to help pronounce

more smooth: Ex. the idea [r] of it

c) When the word-final vowel is a

diphthong which glides to [i]: [ai],

[ei] the palatal sonorant [j] tends

to be inserted: saying [‘sai(j)iη]

d) In case of the u-gliding diph-s:

[ou], [au] the bilabial sonorant [w]

is smtimes inserted: Ex. do it

All these phenomena manifest the

economy of pronouncing effort on the

part of the speaker.

Vowels →modifications in unstressed

positions either quantative or

qualitative, or both

Reduction

Man [mæn] – sportsman [spﺭ:tsmәn] -

quality’s changed

knee [i:] – need (not so long) – neat

slight degree of nasalization may

mark vowels preceded/followed by the

nasal cons-t: Ex. Knee

in rapid, informal speech reduction

may result in vowel elision →the

unstressed vowels are omitted: Ex.

History [‘histri], correct [‘krekt]

There exists a 3

variety – “intermediate

case” – when the change in the tongue

pos-n is weak and the difference b/w the

starting point and the end is not sg distinc-

n as in the case of diphthongs →

diphthongoids: /ī/ , /ū/

Eng diphthongs – 2 groups:

1) Centring (ending in /ә/ ([ςwa]

vowel)): iә, Ụә, εә

2) Closing (normal):

2.1.ending in /i/: ei, ai, כּi

2.2.ending in Ụ: әỤ, aỤ

2.1. + 2.2. → /ә/

2) The position of the tongue –

characterized from 2 aspects:

a) The horizontal movement – 5 classes

of vowels

a.1. front (ī, e, ei, æ, εә)

a.2. front-retracted (I, iә)

a.3. central (٨, з:, ә, әỤ)

a.4. back (ю, כּ:, u:)

a.5. back-advanced (Ụ, Ụә, a:)

This is the approach of Rus phoneticians

(a.2. and a.5. aren’t distinguished by Eng

phoneticians)

b) The vertical movement (Brit phonet-

ns)

b.1. high (close)

b.2. mid (half-open)

b.3. low (open)

need more details

3) Lip position – irrelevant phonology-

ly – no 2 vowel phonemes which can

be opposed on this point: 3 types of

lip rounding (spread, neutral and

rounded)

4) Checkness – irrelevant phon-ly.

Checked vowels –short stressed

vowels pronounced w/out any

decrease in the force of articul-n +

immediately followed by consonants

(Ex. city). All Eng short vowels are

checked when stressed. The

degree of checkness depends on the

following consonant (more

perceptible before the voiceless). All

long vowels – not checked, but free

(all Rus vowels).

5) Duration (length) – not relevant,

cause it depends on the context,

style of pronounciation, the tempo of

the whole utterance.

6) Tenseness characterizes the state

of the organs of speech at the

moment of production of a vowel.

Historically – long vowels →tense,

short →lax. Not relevant feature.

1.2.The Structure of the intonaon paern and the funcon of its elements.

Intonaon – a unity of non-segmental or prosodic features of speech (acousc properes):

3) Speech melody or pitch of the voice -manifests itself in the fact that syllables in an inton-n gr are uered w/a certain pitch (speech

melody). The syllable pronounced w/a percepble pitch movement usually occur at the end of an inton-n gr dividing it from the next one. The

movement can be upward + downward directed.

4) Sent. stress or accent. The pitch component and the stress component are closely connected. The main funcon of sent stress is to

di)erenate the communicave center in an inton-n gr that is a word or a gr of words which usually convey smth new to the listener.

5) A gr of temporal Speech characteriscs (duraon, tempo, pausaon).

Di)erent duraon of sent-s helps to di)erenate communicave types of sent-s. Pauses separate inton-n gr-s and sent-s from each other.The

term ‘tempo’ implies the rate (speed+frequency) of the uerance and pausaon.

6) Rhythm. -is periodic recurrence of stressed syllables. It’s naturallyconnected w/the lexico-gram structure and one of the forms in

which a lang exists.

There’re 2 gr-s of lang acc to the type of their rhythm: syllable-med (French, Spanish) and stress-med (Eng, German, Russian)

7) Timbre [‘tæmbә] -is very mysterious.

Di)erent voice quality (huskiness, bass) helps to idenfy the speaker + to express the speaker’s a=tude → the concern of linguiscs.

All these characteriscs enable the speaker to adequately communicate his thoughts, emoons, a=tude and the content of the uerance.